Variability, Scalability and Stability of Microgrids

Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Contributors
1 Introduction
    1.1 Microgrid fundamentals and its anatomy
    1.2 Microgrid technical aspects
        1.2.1 Microgrid control issues
        1.2.2 Power electronics in microgrid
        1.2.3 Addressing power electronics reliability in microgrid
        1.2.4 Use of energy storage systems in microgrid
        1.2.5 Microgrid information and communication technology
        1.2.6 Stability and protection issues of microgrid
    1.3 Microgrid future form
        1.3.1 Addressing scalability and variability
        1.3.2 Transformation of microgrid to virtual power plant
        1.3.3 Future trends of power electronics and its adaptation in microgrid
        1.3.4 Future trends of energy storage technology
        1.3.5 Future form of microgrid communication
    1.4 What is in this book?
    1.5 Conclusions
    References
2 Microgrid control overview
    2.1 Introduction
    2.2 Uncertainty of the generation and demand
        2.2.1 Application of grid-tied MGs
    2.3 MG control hierarchy
        2.3.1 Primary control
        2.3.2 Secondary control
        2.3.3 Tertiary control
    2.4 Case studies
        2.4.1 Droop-based power control
        2.4.2 Demand-side primary frequency control
        2.4.3 Centralised secondary control
    2.5 Conclusion
    References
3 Requirements analysis in transactive energy management
    3.1 Introduction
    3.2 Transactive energy management
    3.3 Application of requirements engineering approaches in transactive energy management
        3.3.1 The i goal modelling
    3.4 Requirements analysis and modelling of the TEM system
        3.4.1 Goal modelling of the TEM system
        3.4.2 Methodology
        3.4.3 Formalisation of multi-objective optimisation functions of the i goal model
    3.5 Conclusion
    References
4 Transformation of microgrid to virtual power plant
    4.1 Introduction
    4.2 Evolution of electricity – the case of Polish electricity sector
    4.3 Liberalization of the energy markets
        4.3.1 Future problem identification
    4.4 Microgrid turns to virtual power plant
        4.4.1 MGs structure and application
    4.5 Microgrid configuration
    4.6 Microsource controller
        4.6.1 Virtual power plant general concept
    4.7 Types of Virtual Power Plants
        4.7.1 An area-based approach to virtual power plants
        4.7.2 Grid support and ancillary services
        4.7.3 VPP model and algorithms
    4.8 Difference between microgrid and VPP
    4.9 Information communication technologies
        4.9.1 RSTP grid mechanism
        4.9.2 SHP grid mechanism
        4.9.3 HSR grid mechanism
        4.9.4 PRP grid mechanism
        4.9.5 Microgrid/VPP cybersecurity
        4.9.6 Energy management system
        4.9.7 Supervision control and data acquisition
        4.9.8 Control system operation and states
        4.9.9 Databases
        4.9.10 Database management process
        4.9.11 Distribution and dispatching centre
    4.10 Case study: regulation of VPP and MGs
    4.11 Conclusion
    References
5 Operations of a clustered microgrid
    5.1 Overview of clustered microgrid
    5.2 Modeling of clustered microgrid
    5.3 Control and operation of clustered microgrid
        5.3.1 Droop-regulated strategy
        5.3.2 Optimization solver
        5.3.3 Modeling of non-dispatchable DERs
    5.4 Optimization problem formulation and technical constraints
    5.5 Case studies
        5.5.1 Study case I (an overloaded MG with primary and secondary actions only)
        5.5.2 Study case II (an overloaded MG with all actions)
        5.5.3 Study case III (an overloaded MG with primary and tertiary actions only)
        5.5.4 Study case IV (an overgenerating MG with primary and secondary actions only)
        5.5.5 Study case V (an overgenerating MG with all actions)
        5.5.6 Study case VI (an overgenerating MG with primary and tertiary actions only)
        5.5.7 Study case VII (multiple PMGs and HMGs with all actions)
    5.6 Concluding remarks
    Nomenclature
    References
6 Distributed energy network using nanogrid
    6.1 Overview of nanogrid
        6.1.1 Concept of nanogrid
        6.1.2 Architecture of nanogrid
        6.1.3 Converters used in nanogrid
    6.2 Energy management in nanogrid
        6.2.1 Battery-mastered control of a simple photovoltaic/battery system
        6.2.2 Decentralized control for multiple battery-based nanogrid
        6.2.3 Decentralized control for multiple distributed generation units based nanogrid
        6.2.4 Decentralized control for multiple energy storage units based nanogrid
        6.2.5 Parameter design for a centralized hierarchical control for AC nanogrid
    6.3 Case study
        6.3.1 Large-scaled intelligent nanogrid
        6.3.2 Small-scaled intelligent nanogrid
        6.3.3 Nanogrid installed in remote villages
        6.3.4 Nanogrid based on cogeneration system
    6.4 Conclusion
    References
7 Sizing of microgrid components
    7.1 Microgrid components
    7.2 Microgrid sizing and profit maximization
    7.3 Models of distributed energy resources
        7.3.1 Probabilistic wind power output model
        7.3.2 Probabilistic photovoltaic power output model
        7.3.3 Dynamic battery energy storage power output model
        7.3.4 Micro-turbine power output model
    7.4 Optimal sizing of microgrid components
        7.4.1 Mathematical formulation
        7.4.2 Backtracking search optimization (BSO) algorithm
        7.4.3 Solution approach
    7.5 Case studies
        7.5.1 Case study 1
        7.5.2 Case study 2
    7.6 Summary
    References
8 Optimal sizing of energy storage system
    8.1 Introduction
    8.2 Energy storage technologies in microgrids: types and characteristics
        8.2.1 Battery energy storage systems
        8.2.2 Flywheel
        8.2.3 Fuel cell
        8.2.4 Superconducting magnetic energy storage
        8.2.5 Supercapacitor
        8.2.6 Technology comparison
    8.3 Necessity of energy storage in microgrids
        8.3.1 Frequency regulation
        8.3.2 Voltage support
        8.3.3 Reliability enhancement
        8.3.4 Demand shifting and peak shaving
        8.3.5 Power smoothing
        8.3.6 Black start
        8.3.7 Storage trades/arbitrage
        8.3.8 Non-spinning reserve
    8.4 Case study
        8.4.1 System description and input data
        8.4.2 Uncertainty modelling
        8.4.3 Problem formulation
        8.4.4 Numerical results
    8.5 Conclusions
    Nomenclature
    References
9 Microgrid communications – protocols and standards
    9.1 Introduction
    9.2 Communication objectives and requirements
    9.3 Communication layer
        9.3.1 Home automation network
        9.3.2 Building automation network
        9.3.3 Neighbourhood area network
        9.3.4 Local area network
        9.3.5 Field area network
        9.3.6 Wide area network
    9.4 Communication infrastructure
        9.4.1 Wired communication
        9.4.2 Wireless communication
    9.5 Communication protocols
        9.5.1 Internet communications protocol suite
        9.5.2 Modbus
        9.5.3 Distributed Network Protocol version 3.3
        9.5.4 IEC 61850
    9.6 Importance of communication technology in microgrid control
    9.7 Case study
    9.8 Conclusion
    Nomenclature
    References
10 Voltage stability of microgrids
    10.1 Introduction
        10.1.1 Concept of voltage stability
        10.1.2 Voltage stability issues of microgrid
        10.1.3 Microgrid voltage stability assessment
    10.2 Small-signal model of a microgrid for voltage stability analysis
    10.3 Voltage stability enhancement
    10.4 Case studies
        10.4.1 Case study 1
        10.4.2 Case study 2
        10.4.3 Case study 3
        10.4.4 Case study 4
    10.5 Concluding remarks
    References
    Further reading
11 Frequency stability and synthetic inertia
    11.1 Frequency stability issues of microgrid
    11.2 Effect of low inertia on the frequency stability of microgrid
    11.3 Frequency stability enhancement
        11.3.1 Synchronous generator (SG) model-based topologies
        11.3.2 Swing equation based
        11.3.3 Frequency–power-response-based topologies
        11.3.4 Droop-based approach
    11.4 Case study
    11.5 Concluding remarks
    References
12 Microgrid protection
    12.1 Protective system design objectives
    12.2 Conventional protective system design practice
        12.2.1 Fault characterization
        12.2.2 Protective equipment and scheme components
        12.2.3 Fault coordination analysis and protective relaying
    12.3 Microgrid protection challenges
        12.3.1 Impact of distributed energy resources on power flow
        12.3.2 Impact of distributed energy resources on fault current magnitude
        12.3.3 Impact of microgrid connection modes and changing configurations
        12.3.4 Earthing considerations
        12.3.5 Cyberattacks
    12.4 Promising solutions for microgrid protection
        12.4.1 Limiting maximum DER capacity
        12.4.2 Evolving communication standards
        12.4.3 Fault current limiters
        12.4.4 Utilization of the ESS for fault discrimination
        12.4.5 Distributed generation control modifications
        12.4.6 Protective system design process for microgrids
        12.4.7 Addressing cybersecurity
    12.5 DC microgrid considerations
        12.5.1 DC fault characteristics
        12.5.2 DC protective system approaches
        12.5.3 DC protective devices
        12.5.4 DC system grounding
    12.6 Conclusion: future of microgrid protection
    References
13 Black start and islanding operations of microgrid
    13.1 Microgrid operational modes
        13.1.1 The microgrid
        13.1.2 Microgrid hierarchical control for emergency operation
        13.1.3 Extending the concept – the multi-microgrid
    13.2 Microgrid islanding and reconnection
        13.2.1 Microgrid primary frequency and voltage control
        13.2.2 Electric vehicles contribution to primary frequency support
        13.2.3 Secondary control and emergency dispatch strategies
        13.2.4 Black start strategies in multi microgrids
        13.2.5 Black start procedure
    13.3 Case study
        13.3.1 Microgrid islanding case study
        13.3.2 Multi Microgrid black start case study
    13.4 Concluding remarks
    References
14 Microgrid feasibility study and economics
    14.1 Overview
        14.1.1 Outline of the chapter
    14.2 Theoretical background
        14.2.1 Model-predictive control
        14.2.2 Two-stage stochastic programming
    14.3 Microgrid component modeling and constraints
        14.3.1 Nomenclature
        14.3.2 Loads
        14.3.3 Distributed generators
        14.3.4 Energy storage systems
        14.3.5 Multi-energy components
        14.3.6 Electrical and thermal balance
        14.3.7 Interaction with the utility grid
    14.4 Microgrid operational strategies
        14.4.1 MPC-based energy-management system for operational optimization
        14.4.2 MPC-based multi-objective AC optimal power flow
    14.5 Feasibility study aspects
        14.5.1 Design and operation
        14.5.2 Components and topology
        14.5.3 Active and reactive control strategies
        14.5.4 Data collection and processing
        14.5.5 Costing of microgrid components
    14.6 Case studies
        14.6.1 Experimental evaluation in Athens, Greece
        14.6.2 Steinkjer microgrid
    14.7 Conclusions
    References
15 Power electronics—microgrid interfacing
    15.1 Importance of power electronics in a microgrid
    15.2 Classifications of microgrids
        15.2.1 AC microgrids
        15.2.2 DC microgrids
    15.3 Power electronic converters
        15.3.1 General power conversation concept
        15.3.2 DC–DC converters
        15.3.3 DC–AC converters
    15.4 Power converter switching schemes
        15.4.1 Pulse width modulation
        15.4.2 Carrier-based pulse width modulation
        15.4.3 Zero-sequence injection
        15.4.4 Space vector modulation
    15.5 Power converter basic control schemes
        15.5.1 Electrical model of converters
        15.5.2 Control of converters in ac grids
        15.5.3 Control of converters in dc grids
    15.6 Filters for power converters—active and passive
        15.6.1 Passive filters
        15.6.2 Active filters
    15.7 Case studies
        15.7.1 Case I: MPC-controlled converters in ac microgrids
        15.7.2 Case II: Power-sharing control in a dc grid
    15.8 Conclusions
    References
Index