Optical Networks
- Length: 720 pages
- Edition: 1
- Language: English
- Publisher: Oxford University Press
- Publication Date: 2021-05-25
- ISBN-10: 0198834225
- ISBN-13: 9780198834229
- Sales Rank: #2847075 (See Top 100 Books)
Following the emergence of lasers and optical fibers, optical networking made its beginning in the 1970s with high-speed LANs/MANs. In the 1980s, when the bandwidth of intercity microwave links turned out to be inadequate for digital telephony, the technology for single-wavelength optical communications using SONET/SDH arrived as a saviour to replace the microwave links. However, single-wavelength links couldn’t utilize the huge bandwidth (40 THz) of optical fibers, while the bandwidth demands kept soaring. This necessitated the use of wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) for concurrent transmission over multiple wavelengths, increasing the available bandwidth significantly.
Today, optical networking has become an indispensable part of telecommunication networks at all hierarchical levels. The book Optical Networks provides a graduate level presentation of optical networks, capturing the past, present and ensuing developments with a unique blend of breadth and depth.
The book is organized in four parts and three appendices. Part I presents an overview and the enabling technologies in two chapters, Part II presents the single-wavelength optical networks in three chapters, while Part III deals with the various forms of WDM optical networks in four chapters.
Finally, Part IV presents some selected topics in six chapters, dealing with a number of contemporary and emerging topics.
Optical Networks provides a comprehensive all-in-one text for beginning graduate as well as final-year undergraduate students, and also allows R&D engineers to quickly refresh the basics and then move on to emerging topics.
Cover Optical Networks Copyright Dedication Preface Acknowledgments Contents Part I: Introduction 1: Optical Networks: An Overview 1.1 Background 1.2 Telecommunication networks: evolving scenario 1.3 Standards for telecommunication networks 1.4 Single-wavelength optical networks 1.5 Wavelength-division multiplexing 1.6 WDM optical networks 1.7 Architectural options in optical networks 1.8 Summary 2: Technologies for Optical Networking 2.1 Optical networking: physical-layer perspective 2.2 Optical fibers 2.2.1 Fiber materials and manufacturing process 2.2.2 Loss mechanisms Intrinsic losses Extrinsic losses Bending losses Loss-versus-wavelength plot and spectral windows 2.2.3 Propagation characteristics: two models Ray theory model Wave theory model 2.2.4 Dispersion mechanisms Intermodal dispersion Chromatic dispersion Polarization-mode dispersion 2.2.5 Fiber nonlinearities Inelastic scattering Kerr nonlinearity 2.2.6 Controlling dispersion and nonlinear effects 2.3 Optical couplers 2.4 Isolators and circulators 2.5 Grating 2.5.1 Bragg grating Fiber Bragg grating 2.5.2 Arrayed waveguide grating 2.6 Fabry–Perot interferometer 2.7 Mach–Zehnder interferometer 2.8 Optical sources 2.8.1 Source materials 2.8.2 LEDs 2.8.3 Semiconductor lasers Laser modes and spectrum Single-mode lasers Tunable lasers 2.8.4 Optical transmitters Direct modulation of lasers External modulation of lasers 2.9 Photodetectors 2.9.1 pin photodiodes 2.9.2 Avalanche photodiodes 2.9.3 Optical receivers 2.10 Optical filters 2.10.1 Fabry–Perot filters 2.10.2 Filters based on fiber Bragg grating 2.10.3 MZI-based filters 2.10.4 Multilayer dielectric thin-film filters 2.10.5 Tunable filters Stretched Bragg gratings MZI-chains with electric control of refractive index MDTFs with thermo-optic control of refractive index MEMS-based electromechanical control of FPIs Acousto-optic tunable filters Liquid crystal based FPIs 2.11 Optical switches 2.11.1 Switching technologies Electro-optic switch Liquid crystal switch Thermo-optic switch MEMS-based switch 2.11.2 Switch architectures 2.11.3 Nonblocking switch architectures Clos architecture Spanke’s architecture Switches Using MEMS in Spanke’s architecture 2.12 Optical amplifiers 2.12.1 SOA 2.12.2 EDFA 2.12.3 Raman amplifier 2.13 Wavelength multiplexers/ demultiplexers 2.14 Wavelength converters 2.15 Wavelength-selective switches 2.16 Optical add-drop multiplexers 2.17 Optical crossconnects 2.18 Optical fiber communication systems 2.19 Summary EXERCISES Part II: Single-Wavelength Optical Networks 3: Optical Local/Metropolitan and Storage-Area Networks 3.1 Optical fibers in local/metropolitan-area networks 3.2 Choice of physical topologies and MAC protocols 3.3 Distributed-queue dual bus (DQDB) 3.3.1 Physical topology and basic features 3.3.2 MAC Protocol 3.4 Fiber-distributed digital interface (FDDI) 3.4.1 Physical topology and basic features 3.4.2 MAC protocol 3.5 Gigabit Ethernet series: 1 Gbps to 100 Gbps 3.5.1 As it evolved 3.5.2 GbE 3.5.2.1 GbE architecture 3.5.2.1.1 Half-duplex operation 3.5.2.2 GbE physical layer 3.5.3 10GbE 3.5.3.1 10GbE Architecture 3.5.3.2 10GbE physical layer 3.5.4 40GbE and 100GbE 3.5.4.1 40/100GbE architecture 3.5.4.2 40/100GbE physical layer 3.6 Storage-area networks 3.7 Summary EXERCISES 4: Optical Access Networks 4.1 Access network: as it evolved 4.2 Optical access network architectures 4.3 Passive optical networks (PONs) 4.3.1 Design challenges in PONs 4.3.2 Dynamic bandwidth allocation in PONs 4.3.3 Standard polling with adaptive cycle time 4.3.4 Interleaved polling with adaptive cycle time Grant sizing and scheduling in IPACT-based DBA schemes Grant scheduling 4.3.5 Interleaved polling with fixed cycle time 4.3.6 Discovery and registration of ONUs in PONs 4.4 EPON, GPON and 10 Gbps PONs 4.4.1 EPON 4.4.2 GPON 4.4.3 10 Gbps PONs 4.5 Summary EXERCISES 5: SONET/SDH, OTN, and RPR 5.1 Arrival of SONET/SDH as a standard 5.2 Synchronization issues in telecommunication networks 5.3 Network synchronization in PDH-based networks 5.4 Network synchronization in SONET/SDH-based networks 5.5 SONET frame structure 5.5.1 Basic SONET frame: STS-1 5.5.2 Multiplexing hierarchy for SONET frames 5.5.3 SONET layers and overhead bytes 5.5.4 Payload positioning and pointer justification 5.5.5 Higher-order SONET frames 5.6 Network elements in SONET 5.7 Network configurations using SONET 5.8 Data transport over SONET 5.9 Optical transport network 5.10 RPR: packet-based metro network over ring 5.10.1 Basic features of RPR 5.10.2 RPR node architecture and MAC protocol 5.10.3 RPR fairness algorithm Congestion detection and rate estimation in AM Congestion detection and rate estimation in CM 5.11 Summary EXERCISES Part III: WDM Optical Networks 6: WDM Local-Area Networks 6.1 WDM in optical LANs 6.2 Experiments on WDM LANs 6.2.1 LAMBDANET 6.2.2 FOX 6.2.3 Rainbow 6.2.4 TeraNet 6.2.5 STARNET 6.2.6 SONATA 6.3 Single-hop WDM LANs 6.3.1 MAC using pretransmission coordination (PC) Slotted-Aloha/Aloha protocol Slotted-Aloha/M-server-switch protocol Performance of PC-based MAC protocols 6.3.2 MAC without PC Fixed time-wavelength assignment scheme Performance of fixed time-wavelength assignment schemes Partially-fixed time-wavelength assignment scheme Performance of partially fixed time-wavelength assignment schemes 6.4 Multihop WDM LANs 6.4.1 ShuffleNet Topological characteristics and network performance Routing schemes 6.4.2 Manhattan street networks Topological characteristics and network performance Routing schemes 6.4.3 Hypercube networks BHCNet Topological characteristics and network performance Routing scheme GHCNet Topological characteristics and network performance Routing schemes 6.4.4 de Bruijn networks Topological characteristics and performance Routing scheme 6.4.5 Comparison of regular multihop topologies 6.4.6 Non-regular multihop topologies First subproblem: LCP Second subproblem:TRP Third subproblem: RP-BE Case studies 6.5 Summary EXERCISES 7: WDM Access Networks 7.1 WDM in access networks 7.2 WDM/TWDM PON architectures 7.3 WDM PON using AWG 7.4 WDM-upgrade of TDM PON 7.5 WDM PON using loopback modulation at ONUs: RITE-Net 7.6 WDM PON using spectral slicing of LEDs: LARNet 7.7 Ring-and-stars topology: SUCCESS 7.8 Ring-and-trees topology: SARDANA 7.9 TWDM PONs 7.9.1 Static TWDM PON using AWG and OSPs 7.9.2 Dynamic TWDM PON using WSS and OSPs 7.9.3 Dynamic TWDM PON using multiple stages of OSPs 7.9.4 TWDM PON using two stages of OSPs with remotely pumped EDFAs 7.9.5 Wavelength and bandwidth allocation schemes for TWDM PONs Static wavelength and dynamic bandwidth allocation Dynamic wavelength and bandwidth allocation 7.10 Open access architecture 7.11 Optical networking in access segment of mobile networks 7.12 Summary EXERCISES 8: WDM Metro Networks 8.1 Metro networks: evolving scenario 8.2 Architectural options: PPWDM, wavelength routing, traffic grooming, circuit/packet switching 8.3 Circuit-switched SONET-over-WDM metro ring 8.3.1 PPWDM ring: uniform traffic 8.3.2 WRON ring: uniform traffic Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3 Generalization 8.3.3 WRON ring: nonuniform traffic LP-based design Heuristic designs Case study 8.3.4 Hub-centric WRON rings Single-hub WRON ring Double-hub WRON ring 8.3.5 Interconnected WRON rings 8.4 Packet-switched WDM metro ring 8.4.1 MAWSON 8.4.2 RingO 8.4.3 HORNET 8.4.4 RINGOSTAR 8.5 Bandwidth utilization in packet and circuit-switched WDM rings 8.6 Summary EXERCISES 9: WDM Long-Haul Networks 9.1 Wavelength-routing in long-haul networks 9.2 Node configurations in mesh-connected WRONs 9.3 Design issues in long-haul WRONs 9.4 Offline design methodologies for long-haul WRONs 9.4.1 MILP-VTD MILP parameters: MILP variables: MILP objective function: MILP constraints: 9.4.2 ILP/heuristic wavelength assignment Case study on MILP-VTD 9.5 Wavelength conversion in long-haul WRONs 9.6 Wavelength utilization with wavelength conversion 9.6.1 WRONs with full wavelength conversion 9.6.2 WRONs without wavelength conversion 9.6.3 Comparison of WRONs with and without wavelength conversion 9.7 Online RWA for operational WRONs 9.8 Summary EXERCISES Part IV: Selected Topics in Optical Networks 10: Transmission Impairments and Power Consumption in Optical Networks 10.1 Physical-layer issues in optical networks 10.2 Impact of transmission impairments in optical networks 10.2.1 BER in optical receivers BER in quantum limit BER of a lightpath in WDM mesh 10.2.2 Power and rise-time budgets 10.3 Impairment-aware design approaches 10.3.1 Impairment awareness in PONs 10.3.2 Impairment awareness in long-haul WRONs 10.4 Power consumption in optical networks 10.4.1 Power-awareness in PONs LPM-based power-saving schemes in PONs 10.4.2 Power-awareness in long-haul WRONs Power-saving schemes in long-haul WRONs 10.5 Summary EXERCISES 11: Survivability of Optical Networks 11.1 Network survivability 11.2 Protection vs. restoration 11.3 Survivability measures in SONET/SDH networks 11.3.1 Unidirectional path-switched ring 11.3.2 Bidirectional line-switched ring 11.3.3 Survivable interconnection of SONET rings 11.4 Survivability measures in PONs 11.4.1 PON protection schemes for feeder and OLT 11.4.2 Comprehensive PON protection scheme 11.4.3 Protection scheme for WDM PONs 11.4.4 Protection scheme for TWDM PONs 11.5 Survivability measures in WDM metro networks 11.5.1 2F-OCh-DP-Ring scheme 11.5.2 4F-OCh-SP-Ring scheme 11.6 Survivability measures in long-haul WDM networks 11.6.1 Upper-bounds of traffic scale-up factor in survivable WRONs Upper-bound from reduced cut-set due to link failure Upper-bound from the per-node transmitters and receivers in protection schemes Upper-bound with disconnected transceivers due to a link failure in restoration schemes Upper-bounds for protection and restoration schemes 11.6.2 Protection-based design of survivable WRONs 11.6.3 Restoration-based design of survivable WRONs 11.6.4 Recovery time for survivable WRONs Recovery time in protection scheme: Recovery time in restoration scheme involving IP layer 11.7 Convergence of survivability schemes in multiple layers 11.8 Summary EXERCISES 12: Optical Network Control and Management 12.1 Multiple-plane abstraction of telecommunication networks 12.2 Framework of control and management planes 12.3 Control and management of optical networks 12.4 Operation, administration and management in SONET 12.5 Generalized multiprotocol label switching 12.5.1 MPLS: basic features 12.5.2 GMPLS architecture 12.5.3 GMPLS protocols 12.6 Automatically switched optical network 12.6.1 ASON architecture 12.6.2 ASON protocols 12.7 Software-defined networks 12.7.1 SDN architecture SDN controller(s) SDN controller(s) SDN controller(s) 12.7.2 OpenFlow protocol 12.7.3 SDN virtualization 12.7.4 SDN Orchestration 12.7.5 A queuing-theory perspective of SDN 12.7.6 Software-defined optical networks Optical transceivers and switching elements Non-SDN optical NEs 12.7.7 SDN/SDON experiments Laboratory testbeds Multinational experiments OFELIA – European nations and Brazil OpenFlow-based UCP – Japan, China, and Spain Industry initiatives and open network foundation 12.8 Summary EXERCISES 13: Datacenter Networks 13.1 Datacenters: evolving scenario 13.2 Datacenter networks: architectural options 13.2.1 DCNs using electrical switching Switch-centric connectivity: tree Switch-centric connectivity: fat tree Switch-centric connectivity: VL2 Switch-centric connectivity: Aspen tree Server-centric connectivity:DCell Server-centric connectivity: BCube 13.2.2 DCNs using electrical-cum-optical switching c-Through Helios 13.2.3 All-optical DCNs OSA Mordia LIONS 13.2.4 DCNs using optical switch and passive stars over fat trees 13.3 Networking with datacenters in long-haul WDM networks 13.3.1 Estimation of datacenter locations 13.3.2 Popularity estimates for objects 13.3.3 Replication of objects in datacenters 13.3.4 Designing WRONs hosting datacenters 13.4 Summary EXERCISES 14: Elastic Optical Networks 14.1 Challenges in fixed-grid WDM networks 14.2 Elastic optical spectrum 14.3 Multicarrier transmission in EON 14.3.1 OOFDM transmission Electrical OFDM basics OOFDM schemes 14.3.2 Nyquist-WDM Transmission 14.3.3 OAWG-based multicarrier transmission 14.4 Bandwidth-variable network elements for EON 14.4.1 Sliceable BVT 14.4.2 BV-WSS 14.4.3 BV-ROADMs and BV-OXCs 14.5 Design issues in EONs 14.6 Offline RSA in EONs 14.7 Online RSA in EONs 14.7.1 Proactive defragmentation Spectral partitioning Periodic spectral cleaning 14.7.2 Reactive defragmentation Hitless spectral adjustment Hitless spectral adjustment with holding-time-aware reordering of FSs 14.8 Summary EXERCISES 15: Optical Packet and Burst-Switched Networks 15.1 Bandwidth granularity in WDM networks 15.2 OPS networks 15.2.1 OPS node architecture: generic form 15.2.2 Header processing, TWC, and FDL units Header processing TWC schemes FDL configuration 15.2.3 Optical switching schemes Wavelength-routed switching scheme AWG-based scheme with recirculation buffers 15.3 OBS networks 15.3.1 OBS signaling schemes 15.3.2 OBS nodes with JET signaling 15.3.3 Burst assembly schemes 15.3.4 Resource reservation schemes 15.3.5 Use of FDLs and TWCs in OBS nodes 15.3.6 Routing schemes in OBS networks 15.3.7 Latency and burst losses 15.4 Summary EXERCISES Appendix A: Basics of Linear Programming and the Simplex Algorithm A.1 Background A.2 Geometric interpretation A.3 Algebraic framework A.4 Simplex algorithm A.4.1 Determining the initial BFS A.4.2 Moving from one BFS to another with improved cost A.4.3 LP solution using tableau formation A.4.4 Case study max{z = 4x1 + 2x2}, (A.61) max{z = 4x1 + 2x2}, (A.61) max{z = 4x1 + 2x2}, (A.61) Ax = d), with A = 1 2 1 0 Ax = d), with A = 1 2 1 0 Ax = d), with A = 1 2 1 0 x = (x1 x2 x3 x4), (A.67) x = (x1 x2 x3 x4), (A.67) x = (x1 x2 x3 x4), (A.67) d = (7, 9). (A.68) d = (7, 9). (A.68) d = (7, 9). (A.68) xB, given by xB = (xB1 xB2) = (x3 x4) = (d1 d2) = (7, 9). (A.69) xB, given by xB = (xB1 xB2) = (x3 x4) = (d1 d2) = (7, 9). (A.69) xB, given by xB = (xB1 xB2) = (x3 x4) = (d1 d2) = (7, 9). (A.69) Pext for the present case study, as Pext = Pext for the present case study, as Pext = Pext for the present case study, as Pext = B, say) among the B, say) among the B, say) among the B) B) B) min{xBi min{xBi min{xBi B or column 5 (i.e., j = 4 in Pext B or column 5 (i.e., j = 4 in Pext B or column 5 (i.e., j = 4 in Pext Pext , i..e., in Pˆ ext . Using Equations A.55 through A.58, all the elements in Pˆ ext are Pext , i..e., in Pˆ ext . Using Equations A.55 through A.58, all the elements in Pˆ ext are Pext , i..e., in Pˆ ext . Using Equations A.55 through A.58, all the elements in Pˆ ext are Pext as: Pext as: Pext as: Pext also Pext also Pext also Pext around the pivot. Pext around the pivot. Pext around the pivot. Practical variations of LP problems Practical variations of LP problems Practical variations of LP problems Pext and the corresponding versions of tableaus. Pext and the corresponding versions of tableaus. Pext and the corresponding versions of tableaus. Appendix B: Noise Processes in Optical Receivers B.1 Noise sources in optical communication systems B.2 Shot noise B.3 Thermal noise B.4 ASE noise B.5 Crosstalk B.6 Total receiver noise B.7 Laser phase noise Appendix C: Basics of Queuing Systems C.1 Queuing: network perspective C.2 Basic configurations and definitions C.3 Little’s theorem C.4 Poisson arrival process C.5 Markov process C.6 Single-server queues: M/M/1 and M/M/1/K C.7 Multiple-server queues: M/M/c and M/M/c/c C.8 M/G/1 queue C.9 Network of queues C.9.1 Tandem networks of queues C.9.2 Networks of queues with feedback Bibliography Abbreviation Index
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