Metrology for 5G and Emerging Wireless Technologies

Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
About the editor
Preface
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations and acronyms
1 Introduction to metrology for 5G and emerging wireless technologies
    1.1 Scope
    1.2 Metrology for 5G and emerging wireless technologies
        1.2.1 Global initiatives
        1.2.2 Standardisation activities
        1.2.3 Technology trends
        1.2.4 Metrological R&D
    1.3 Structure of the book
        References
        Part I Waveform metrology
    2 Metrology for 5G link adaptation and signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio
        2.1 Definition of error vector magnitude and signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio
        2.2 Link adaptation techniques and channel quality indicator
        2.3 Characterising Gaussian noise and interference
        2.4 Using error vector magnitude to predict signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio
        2.5 Application of interference in over the air testing
        2.6 Summary
        References
Part II Device metrology
    3 Non-linear measurements for 5G devices and the associated uncertainties
        3.1 Introduction
        3.2 Non-linear vector network analyser measurements
            3.2.1 Introduction to NVNA measurements
            3.2.2 NVNA calibration
            3.2.3 Time domain vs frequency domain
        3.3 Load-pull measurements
            3.3.1 Introduction to load-pull measurements
            3.3.2 Load-pull set-up and measurement procedure
            3.3.3 Typical load-pull results
        3.4 X-parameter measurements
            3.4.1 Basic X-parameters
            3.4.2 Load-dependent X-parameters
        3.5 Uncertainty in non-linear measurements
            3.5.1 Introduction to measurement uncertainty
            3.5.2 Tools for uncertainty evaluation
            3.5.3 Examples of uncertainty evaluation
        3.6 Summary
        Acknowledgements
        References
    4 Multiphysics measurements of RF/microwave power amplifiers
        4.1 Introduction
        4.2 Classical design techniques and transistor layout
        4.3 Thermal measurements
            4.3.1 Infrared thermography
            4.3.2 Raman spectroscopy
            4.3.3 Thermoreflectance imaging
        4.4 Electromagnetic field measurements
            4.4.1 Metallic probes
            4.4.2 Electro-optic probing
        4.5 Multiphysics measurements
            4.5.1 System calibration and validation
            4.5.2 Measurements of high-power LDMOS transistors
            4.5.3 Measurements of GaN HEMTs
            4.5.4 Measurements of Doherty power amplifiers
        4.6 Conclusion
        References
Part III Antenna metrology
    5 A metrological millimeter wave hybrid beamforming testbed with a large antenna array
        5.1 Introduction
            5.1.1 Beamforming architectures
            5.1.2 Challenges and state of the art
        5.2 Testbed design and evaluation
            5.2.1 Baseband systems and up- and down-converters
            5.2.2 mm-Wave fully connected hybrid beamformer system
            5.2.3 mm-Wave antennas
        5.3 Measurement metrologies
            5.3.1 Calibration
            5.3.2 Linearity
            5.3.3 Phase
            5.3.4 Attenuation
            5.3.5 Beamforming
            5.3.6 Link performance
        5.4 Conclusion and future directions
        Acknowledgement
        References
    6 Assessment of broadband sources and defocusing effects of compact antenna test range for 5G antenna testing
        6.1 The compact range
        6.2 Compact range performance
        6.3 Compact range feed considerations
        6.4 The constant beamwidth
        6.5 Phase wavefront
        6.6 Phase center and beamwidth on Vivaldi antennas
        6.7 Power handling of the feed
        6.8 Understanding your measurement range
        6.9 Conclusion
        References
    7 International intercomparison campaigns for mobile communication antenna characterizations towards 5G and beyond
        7.1 Interlaboratory evaluations
            7.1.1 General overview
            7.1.2 EurAAP intercomparison campaigns
        7.2 EurAAP measurement campaign reference antennas
        7.3 Procedures for EurAAP measurements comparison
            7.3.1 Reference value
            7.3.2 Equivalent noise level determination
            7.3.3 Uncertainty budget consistency check
        7.4 Mobile communication antennas EurAAP intercomparison campaigns
            7.4.1 MVI BTS 1940 campaign
            7.4.2 CTIA MIMO LTE antennas campaign
        7.5 Future trends for intercomparison of 5G antennas
        7.6 Conclusions
        References
    8 Numerical and experimental analyses of wearable antennas, including novel fabrication and metrology techniques
        8.1 Introduction
        8.2 Advanced fabrication techniques for wearable antennas
            8.2.1 Screen printing
            8.2.2 Inkjet printing
            8.2.3 Embroidery with conductive yarns
            8.2.4 Woven and non-woven antennas
            8.2.5 Vinyl cutters and plotters
            8.2.6 Automated laser prototyping on flexible substrates
        8.3 Metrology techniques for wearable antennas
            8.3.1 Phantom numerical and experimental evaluation
            8.3.2 Mechanical durability of wearable devices
            8.3.3 Specific absorption rate
            8.3.4 Durability and washing tests
            8.3.5 Environmental factors (humidity and thermal tests)
        8.4 Wearable antennas for 5G and beyond
            8.4.1 Ultra-wideband frequency-reconfigurable antenna
            8.4.2 Millimetre-wave flexible antenna design and metrology
            8.4.3 On-body measurements on wearable antennas
        8.5 Conclusions
        Acknowledgements
        References
    9 5G mm-wave mobile handset antenna system, measurements and evaluations
        9.1 Introduction
        9.2 3GPP RF requirements and implications on antenna design and integration in FR2
            9.2.1 FR2 frequency spectrum
            9.2.2 UE power class and RF requirements in FR2
            9.2.3 The impact of the beam-based operation on the RF requirement
            9.2.4 Implication on the antenna integration in mobile handheld devices
        9.3 5G mobile antenna measurements
        9.4 Passive and active measurements of a 5G beam-switchable antenna system with near-field chamber
            9.4.1 Corner beam-switchable array simulated performance
            9.4.2 Experimental validation with passive measurements
            9.4.3 Integration impact evaluation with active measurements
        9.5 Effects and modelling of the user blockage on millimetre-wave mobile terminal antennas
            9.5.1 Critical gesture investigation
            9.5.2 Statistical measurements
            9.5.3 User shadowing pattern modelling
            9.5.4 User body effect on the propagation channel
        9.6 Conclusion
        Acknowledgements
        References
Part IV System OTA metrology
    10 Over-the-air testing metrology of 5G radios
        10.1 Introduction
        10.2 Performance testing
            10.2.1 Introduction
            10.2.2 MPAC solution
            10.2.3 Research/design questions
        10.3 Two-stage MIMO OTA test method
            10.3.1 Principle of the radiated two-stage method
            10.3.2 Applying measured antenna patterns into channel models
            10.3.3 Wireless cable principle in RTS
            10.3.4 RTS solution for G/ G system
        10.4 RF testing
            10.4.1 Midfield solution
            10.4.2 MF measurement distance
            10.4.3 Basic principle for MF test method
            10.4.4 MF system and validation test
        10.5 G testing standardization
            10.5.1 Performance testing
            10.5.2 RF testing
        10.6 Conclusion
        References
    11 Over-the-air testing with synthetic-aperture techniques
        11.1 Synthetic-aperture methods
            11.1.1 Prior work
            11.1.2 The role of the spatial Fourier transform in synthetic-aperture processing
        11.2 Beamforming and measurement attributes of synthetic apertures for wireless communications applications
            11.2.1 Array coordinate systems
            11.2.2 Beamforming and angular resolution
            11.2.3 Beamforming measured S21 data
            11.2.4 Effect of element pattern on beam steering
            11.2.5 Frequency invariant beamformer with reduced sidelobes
            11.2.6 Bandwidth effects
            11.2.7 Delay resolution
            11.2.8 Total received-power delay spread
            11.2.9 Dynamic range
            11.2.10 Using system parameters to design a synthetic-aperture system
        11.3 Measurements and uncertainties
            11.3.1 Measurement approaches
            11.3.2 Uncertainties
        11.4 Characterization of a microwave-band spatial-channel “hybrid” test chamber with a synthetic-aperture system
            11.4.1 The environment: chamber design and configuration
            11.4.2 Measurement setup
            11.4.3 Measured results
            11.4.4 Measurement uncertainty
            11.4.5 Hybrid-chamber test environment
        11.5 Millimeter-wave synthetic-aperture system in a highly reflective industrial environment
            11.5.1 The environment: industrial utility plant
            11.5.2 Measurement setup
            11.5.3 Analysis approaches
            11.5.4 Measured results
            11.5.5 Summary
        References
    12 Using reverberation chambers for mm-wave over-the-air and electromagnetic compatibility measurements
        12.1 Introduction
        12.2 Total radiated power (TRP) and total isotropic sensitivity (TIS)
            12.2.1 Measurement set-up
            12.2.2 Chamber characterisations needed for measurements
            12.2.3 Test procedure for TRP measurement
            12.2.4 Test procedures for TIS measurement
            12.2.5 Analysis of measurement uncertainty in TRP and TIS measurements
            12.2.6 Uncertainty of spatial uniformity
        12.3 Pattern correlation
        12.4 Antenna efficiency
            12.4.1 Reference antenna method to measure the antenna efficiency
            12.4.2 Revised method to measure efficiency without reference antennas
        12.5 Emission immunity
            12.5.1 Immunity test set-up
            12.5.2 Selecting the frequency sweep/intervals
            12.5.3 Immunity test procedures
        12.6 Shielding effectiveness measurement
            12.6.1 Material shielding effectiveness measurement
            12.6.2 Cavity shielding effectiveness measurement
        References
    13 Over-the-air testing for autonomous vehicle communications
        13.1 Introduction
        13.2 Automotive wireless connectivity requirements
            13.2.1 Legacy and current automotive wireless communication
            13.2.2 5G automotive wireless communication
            13.2.3 Over-the-air testing
        13.3 CAV V2X measurement set-up and methodology
            13.3.1 Experimental details for OTA V2X measurements in FR1
            13.3.2 Experimental details for OTA V2X measurements in FR2
        13.4 CAV V2X OTA results and inferences
            13.4.1 FR1 large- and small-scale fading: received power and delay spread
            13.4.2 FR1 error vector magnitude
            13.4.3 FR2 large- and small-scale fading: received power and delay spread
            13.4.4 FR2 error vector magnitude and throughput
            13.4.5 Influence of weather, air quality and traffic
        13.5 Conclusions
        Acknowledgements
        References
    14 Performance evaluation and compliance testing of 5G/6G base stations, user-devices and systems
        14.1 Antenna gain and OTA measurements
        14.2 AUT/DUT testing parameters
        14.3 Near field versus far field
        14.4 Modern testing solutions
        14.5 Near-field measurements with digital NF/FF transformation
        14.6 Multi-probe systems for NF and FF measurements
        14.7 Plane wave generators
        14.8 Compact test range
        14.9 Array-based plane wave generator
        14.10 Conclusion
        References
Part V Propagation channel metrology
    15 Metrology for channel sounding
        15.1 Wireless channel measurement requirements of 5G communication
            15.1.1 Higher communications frequency and larger bandwidth
            15.1.2 Massive MIMO
            15.1.3 Spatial consistency and dual mobility
            15.1.4 Wide-range propagation scenarios and diverse network topologies
            15.1.5 High mobility
        15.2 Requirements for 5G wireless channel measurement
            15.2.1 System architecture
            15.2.2 RF and antenna array
            15.2.3 Synchronization system
            15.2.4 Sounding signal design
        15.3 Channel measurement methods
            15.3.1 System architecture
            15.3.2 Design challenges and key technologies
        15.4 Channel data processing
            15.4.1 Signal model
            15.4.2 EM Algorithm
            15.4.3 SAGE algorithm
        15.5 Channel measurement
            15.5.1 Scenario test planning and measurement
            15.5.2 Measurement in anechoic chamber (with a reflector)
            15.5.3 Outdoor measurement
            15.5.4 Channel model library
        Acknowledgments
        References
    16 Empirical mmWave channel measurements and modelling in indoor and outdoor complex environments for 5G communications
        16.1 Introduction
            16.1.1 Towards the development of mmWave channel models
        16.2 Background theory and terminology
            16.2.1 Empirical channel measurements and modelling
            16.2.2 The measurement equipment and set-up
            16.2.3 Outdoor measurements
            16.2.4 Indoor measurements
        References
    17 Massive MIMO: real-world trials and practical solutions for 5G and beyond
        17.1 A real-time 128-antenna massive MIMO testbed
        17.2 Evaluating capacity gains from massive MIMO in real-time
            17.2.1 An evaluation of indoor LOS massive MIMO performance
        17.3 Impact of inaccurate CSI in real-time
            17.3.1 System model
            17.3.2 Accumulation of error amplification in UL
            17.3.3 Imperfect channel reciprocity and accumulation of error amplification in DL
            17.3.4 Real-time evaluation using massive MIMO testbed
        17.4 SINR estimation and EVM prediction
            17.4.1 EVM prediction based on SINR calculation
            17.4.2 EVM prediction based on SINR calculation with error estimation
            17.4.3 Experimental campaign
        17.5 Conclusions
        References
    18 Millimetre-wave radio propagation measurements towards 5G NR standardizations
        18.1 Introduction
            18.1.1 5G spectrum overview
            18.1.2 Reference scenarios for mmWave communications
            18.1.3 Standardized mmWave channel models
        18.2 Measurement methodologies
            18.2.1 VNA-based frequency-domain channel sounding method
            18.2.2 Time-domain channel sounding method
            18.2.3 Comparison and discussion
        18.3 Measurement results
            18.3.1 Indoor semi-closed scenarios
            18.3.2 Indoor transitional and blocked scenarios
            18.3.3 Outdoor-to-indoor scenarios
            18.3.4 Indoor building material reflection measurements
        18.4 Summary
        References
    19 Terahertz communications on various beyond 5G real-world use cases for IoT, railway, train, drone communications—propagation channel characterization and challenges
        19.1 Introduction
        19.2 THz channel-modeling approach
            19.2.1 Stochastic channel modeling
            19.2.2 Deterministic channel modeling
            19.2.3 Hybrid channel modeling
        19.3 Real-world use case for Internet of things
        19.4 Real-world use case for railway and train
        19.5 Real-world use case for drone
        19.6 Real-world use for wireless connections on a desktop
        19.7 New concerns of THz channel modeling
            19.7.1 Propagation aspect—meteorological impact
            19.7.2 Antenna array aspect—beam split
            19.7.3 Device aspect—noise impact
        19.8 Conclusion
        Acknowledgments
        References
Part VI RF exposure metrology
    20 Measurement of 5G new radio-base stations
        20.1 Introduction
        20.2 The resource grid
        20.3 The principles of the 5G transmission
        20.4 Strategies to measure the exposure of an NR-base station
        20.5 Measurement of the synchronisation signals
        20.6 Summing the contributions of all SS/PBCH block indexes
        20.7 Extrapolation
        20.8 Extrapolation factor for the SSS
        20.9 The antenna correction factor
        20.10 Beam statistic factor
        20.11 Duplex factor
        20.12 Compliance assessment of base stations
        20.13 Example
        20.14 Summary
        20.15 Outlook and future work
        20.16 Conclusion
        References
    21 Metrology for RF-exposure from massive MIMO system
        21.1 Motivation for 5G RF-exposure new metrology and guidelines
        21.2 Measuring 5G RF-exposure
        21.3 Experimental assessment of the RF-exposure of massive MIMO base station via a reconfigurable testbed
            21.3.1 mMIMO testbed set-up
            21.3.2 Calibration of the mMIMO testbed equipment
            21.3.3 Experimental set-up and test scenarios
            21.3.4 First experiment
            21.3.5 Second experiment
        21.4 Summary
        References
    22 Conclusions and future perspectives
        22.1 Conclusion
        22.2 Future perspectives
Index