Materials for Engineers and Technicians, 7th Edition

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
1. Engineering materials
	1.1. Introduction
	1.2. The requirements
		1.2.1. properties of materials
	1.3. The materials
		1.3.1. Materials classification
	1.4. Structure of materials
		1.4.1. the chemical bonding of atoms
		1.4.2. the electrovalent (or ionic) bond
		1.4.3. the metallic bond
		1.4.4. the covalent bond
		1.4.5. intermolecular forces
		1.4.6. polymorphism
		1.4.7. electrical conductivity and materials
	1.5. Processes
	1.6. The materials society
2. Properties of materials
	2.1. Introduction
	2.2. Properties
		2.2.1. Mechanical properties
		2.2.2. Electrical properties
		2.2.3. Thermal properties
		2.2.4. Durability
		2.2.5. Magnetic properties
		2.2.6. Translucency and transparency properties
	2.3. Costs
	2.4. Data sources
		2.4.1. Data sources
3. Mechanical testing
	3.1. Introduction
	3.2. The tensile test
		3.2.1. Tensile-testing machines
		3.2.2. Force-extension diagrams
		3.2.3. Percentage elongation
		3.2.4. Proportional test-pieces
		3.2.5. Representative test-pieces
	3.3. Hardness tests
		3.3.1. The brinell hardness test
		3.3.2. The vickers pyramid hardness test
		3.3.3. The rockwell hardness test
		3.3.4. The shore scleroscope
		3.3.5. Wear resistance
	3.4. Impact tests
		3.4.1. The izod impact test
		3.4.2. The charpy impact test
		3.4.3. Effect of defects on impact properties
	3.5. Creep
	3.6. Fatigue
		3.6.1. S/N curves
		3.6.2. Fatigue failure case study
	3.7. Other mechanical tests
		3.7.1. The erichsen cupping test
		3.7.2. Bend tests
		3.7.3. Compression tests
		3.7.4. Torsion tests
	3.8. Factor of safety
4. The crystal structure of metals
	4.1. Introduction
	4.2. From gas to solid
	4.3. Metal crystals
		4.3.1. Dendritic solidification
	4.4. Impurities in cast metals
	4.5. The influence of cooling rates on crystal size
		4.5.1. Rapid solidification processing (RSP)
5. Casting process
	5.1. Introduction
	5.2. Ingot-casting
		5.2.1. Continuous casting
	5.3. Sand-casting
		5.3.1. Uses of sand-casting
	5.4. Die-casting
		5.4.1. Pressure die-casting
		5.4.2. Gravity die-casting
		5.4.3. Uses of die-casting
	5.5. Centrifugal casting
		5.5.1. uses of centrifugal casting
	5.6. Investment-casting
		5.6.1. Production of investment-castings
		5.6.2. Uses of investment-casting
	5.7. Full-mould process
		5.7.1. Uses of full-mould casting
		5.7.2. The lost-foam process
	5.8. Semi-solid metal processing
		5.8.1. Uses of semi-solid metal processing
	5.9. The choice of casting process
		5.9.1. ‘Long run’ production
6. Mechanical deformation of metals
	6.1. Introduction
	6.2. Slip
		6.2.1. Dislocations
		6.2.2. The carpet analogy
		6.2.3. Work-hardening
		6.2.4. Deformation by twinning
	6.3. Annealing
		6.3.1. The relief of stress
		6.3.2. Recrystallisation
		6.3.3. Grain growth
	6.4. Cold-working processes
		6.4.1. Uses of cold-working
	6.5. Hot-working processes
		6.5.1. Uses of hot-working
	6.6. Grain flow and fibre
		6.6.1. The macro-examination of fibre direction
		6.6.2. Mechanical deformation or casting
	6.7. Metallurgical furnaces
		6.7.1. Furnace atmospheres
7. The mechanical shaping of metal
	7.1. Introduction
	7.2. Hot-working processes
		7.2.1. Forging
		7.2.2. Hot-rolling
		7.2.3. Extrusion
	7.3. Cold-working processes
		7.3.1. Cold-rolling
		7.3.2. Drawing
		7.3.3. Cold-pressing and deep-drawing
		7.3.4. Spinning
		7.3.5. Stretch-forming
		7.3.6. Coining and embossing
		7.3.7. Impact-extrusion
	7.4. Powder metallurgy
		7.4.1. Uses of powder metallurgy
		7.4.2. Cemented carbides
		7.4.3. Sintered-bronze bearings
	7.5. Machining metals
		7.5.1. machinability
8. Alloys
	8.1. Introduction
		8.1.1. Solutions
	8.2. Eutectics
	8.3. Solid solutions
		8.3.1. Brick analogy
		8.3.2. Substitutional solid solutions
		8.3.3. Interstitial solid solutions
		8.3.4. Diffusion
		8.3.5. Solid solutions and strength
	8.4. Intermetallic compounds
	8.5. Summary: alloys
9. Equilibrium diagrams
	9.1. Introduction
	9.2. Obtaining equilibrium diagrams
		9.2.1. Lead-tin alloys
	9.3. Types of equilibrium diagram
		9.3.1. An alloy system in which the two metals are soluble in each other in all proportions in both liquid and solid states
		9.3.2. An alloy system in which the two metals are soluble in each other in all proportions in the liquid state, but completely i
		9.3.3. An alloy system in which the two metals are soluble in each other in all proportions in the liquid state, but only partial
	9.4. Precipitation from a solid solution
		9.4.1. A liquid solution
		9.4.2. A solid solution
	9.5. Ternary equilibrium diagrams
10. Practical microscopy
	10.1. Introduction
	10.2. Selecting and mounting a specimen
	10.3. Grinding and polishing the specimen
		10.3.1. Grinding
		10.3.2. Polishing
	10.4. Etching the specimen
	10.5. The metallurgical microscope
		10.5.1. Using the microscope
		10.5.2. The care of the microscope
		10.5.3. Forms of light microscopy
	10.6. The electron microscope
11. Iron and steel
	11.1. Introduction
	11.2. Smelting
	11.3. Steel-making
		11.3.1. Basic oxygen steel-making (bos)
		11.3.2. Electric-arc steel-making
	11.4. Composition of steels
		11.4.1. Cementite
	11.5. The structure of plain-carbon steels
		11.5.1. A 0.4% Carbon steel
		11.5.2. A 0.8% Carbon steel
		11.5.3. A 1.2% Carbon steel
		11.5.4. Hypo- and hyper-eutectoid steels
	11.6. Heat treatment of steel
		11.6.1. Normalising
		11.6.2. Annealing
	11.7. Brittle fracture in steels
12. The heat treatment of plain-carbon steels
	12.1. Introduction
	12.2. Principles of hardening
		12.2.1. TTT diagrams
		12.2.2. Factors affecting cooling rates
		12.2.3. Quenching media
	12.3. The hardening process
	12.4. Tempering
		12.4.1. Tempering colours
		12.4.2. Applications of heat-treated plain-carbon steels
	12.5. Isothermal heat treatments
		12.5.1. Martempering
		12.5.2. Austempering
		12.5.3. Limitations of martempering and austempering
	12.6. Hardenability
		12.6.1. Ruling section
	12.7. The jominy test
	12.8. Hardenability
	12.9. Heat-treatment furnaces
13. Alloy steels
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1. Alloying elements
		13.1.2. Alloy steels
	13.2. Constructional steels
		13.2.1. Nickel steels
		13.2.2. Chromium steels
		13.2.3. Nickel-chromium steels
		13.2.4. Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
		13.2.5. Manganese steels
		13.2.6. Boron steels
		13.2.7. Maraging steels
	13.3. Tool and die steels
		13.3.1. Die steels
		13.3.2. High-speed steel
	13.4. Stainless steels
		13.4.1. Types of stainless steels
		13.4.2. Weld-decay
		13.4.3. Stainless steels and their uses
	13.5. Heat-resisting steels
	13.6. Magnet alloys
		13.6.1. Magnetic hysteresis
		13.6.2. Soft and hard magnetic materials
14. The surface hardening of steels
	14.1. Introduction
	14.2. Case-hardening
		14.2.1. Carburising in solid media
		14.2.2. Carburising in liquid media
		14.2.3. Carburising by gaseous media
	14.3. Heat treatment after carburising
	14.4. Case-hardening steels
	14.5. Nitriding
		14.5.1. Heat treatment
		14.5.2. Advantages and disadvantages of nitriding
		14.5.3. Carbonitriding
	14.6. Ion-nitriding
	14.7. Flame-hardening
	14.8. Induction-hardening
	14.9. Summary of surface-hardening processes
15. Cast iron
	15.1. Introduction
	15.2. Composition of cast irons
	15.3. The influence of cooling rate on the properties of a cast iron
	15.4. ‘Growth’ in cast irons
	15.5. Ordinary cast irons
		15.5.1. Engineering irons
		15.5.2. Fluid irons
	15.6. High-duty cast irons
		15.6.1. Spheroidal-graphite cast iron
		15.6.2. Compacted-graphite cast iron
	15.7. Malleable cast irons
		15.7.1. Blackheart malleable iron
		15.7.2. Whiteheart malleable iron
		15.7.3. Pearlitic malleable iron
	15.8. Alloy cast irons
	15.9. Which iron?
16. Copper and its alloys
	16.1. Introduction
	16.2. The extraction of copper
	16.3. Properties of copper
	16.4. Coppers and alloys
		16.4.1. Alloys of copper
	16.5. The Brasses
		16.5.1. ‘shape memory’ alloys
	16.6. Tin bronzes
		16.6.1. Phosphor bronze
		16.6.2. Gunmetal
		16.6.3. Leaded bronzes
	16.7. Aluminium bronzes
	16.8. Copper-nickel alloys
		16.8.1. Nickel-silvers
	16.9. Other copper alloys
		16.9.1. Beryllium bronze
		16.9.2. Copper-chromium
		16.9.3. Copper-cadmium
		16.9.4. Copper-tellurium
		16.9.5. Arsenical copper
17. Aluminium and its alloys
	17.1. Introduction
	17.2. Extraction of aluminium
	17.3. Properties of aluminium
	17.4. Aluminium alloys
		17.4.1. CEN designation system for aluminium alloys
		17.4.2. Designation system for wrought alloy tempers
		17.4.3. Designation system for cast alloys tempers
	17.5. Wrought alloys which are not heat treated
	17.6. Cast alloys which are not heat treated
	17.7. Wrought alloys which are heat treated
		17.7.1. Heat treatment
	17.8. Cast alloys which are heat treated
18. Other non-ferrous metals and alloys
	18.1. Introduction
	18.2. Nickel and its alloys
		18.2.1. Nickel properties and uses
		18.2.2. Electrical resistance alloys for use at high temperatures
		18.2.3. Corrosion-resistant alloys
		18.2.4. High-temperature corrosion-resistant alloys
		18.2.5. Low-expansion alloys
		18.2.6. Shape memory alloys
	18.3. Titanium and its alloys
		18.3.1. Properties of titanium
		18.3.2. Titanium structure and its alloys
		18.3.3. Uses of titanium
	18.4. Magnesium-base alloys
		18.4.1. Magnesium alloys
	18.5. Zinc-based alloys
		18.5.1. High-strength zinc-based alloys
	18.6. Bearing metals
		18.6.1. White bearing metals
		18.6.2. Aluminium-tin alloys
		18.6.3. Copper-based bearing metals
		18.6.4. Polymeric bearing materials
	18.7 Other metals
19. Plastics materials and rubbers
	19.1. Introduction
	19.2. Types of plastics
		19.2.1. Raw materials
		19.2.2. Composition of plastics
		19.2.3. General properties of plastics materials
	19.3. Thermoplastics
		19.3.1. Plasticisers
	19.4. Thermoplastic materials
		19.4.1. Vinyl plastics
		19.4.2. Fluorocarbons
		19.4.3. Cellulose-based plastics (cellulose esters)
		19.4.4. Polyamides (PA)
		19.4.5. Polyesters
		19.4.6. Polyacetals
		19.4.7. Acrylics
		19.4.8. High-temperature thermoplastics
	19.5. Thermosets
	19.6. Thermoset materials
		19.6.1. Phenolics
		19.6.2. Polyester resins
		19.6.3. Polyurethanes
		19.6.4. Epoxy resins
		19.6.5. Polyimides
		19.6.6. Silicones
	19.7. Elastomers
		19.7.1. Long-chain molecules in rubber
		19.7.2. Vulcanisation
		19.7.3. Engineering elastomers
	19.8. Recycling of polymers
20. Properties of plastics
	20.1. Introduction
	20.2. Crystal and glass states
		20.2.1. Melting points of polymers
		20.2.2. Glass transition temperature
		20.2.3. Vicat softening temperature
	20.3. Mechanical properties
		20.3.1. Tensile testing
		20.3.2. Hardness tests
		20.3.3. Impact tests
		20.3.4. Creep
		20.3.5. Other mechanical tests
	20.4. Additives
		20.4.1. Fillers
		20.4.2. Anti-static agents
		20.4.3. Flame retardants
		20.4.4. Friction modifiers
		20.4.5. Other additives
		20.4.6. Foamed or ‘expanded’ plastics materials
	20.5. Shaping plastics
		20.5.1. Calendering
		20.5.2. Extrusion
		20.5.3. Moulding
		20.5.4. Casting
	20.6. Machining polymers
21. Ceramics
	21.1. Introduction
	21.2. Silicate-based ceramics
		21.2.1. ‘Chain’ type arrangements
		21.2.2 . Sheet’ type arrangements
	21.3. Asbestos
		21.3.1. Asbestos as a health hazard
		21.3.2. Obsolete products containing asbestos
		21.3.3. Precautions on encountering asbestos
	21.4. Clay products
		21.4.1. Fireclay
		21.4.2. Shaping clay products
		21.4.3. Hydroplastic forming
		21.4.4. Heat treatment of clay products
	21.5. Engineering ceramics
		21.5.1. Magnesium oxide
		21.5.2. Aluminium oxide
		21.5.3. Silicon nitride
		21.5.4. Sialons
		21.5.5. Zirconia
		21.5.6. Some other engineering ceramics
	21.6. Properties of ceramics
		21.6.1. Strength
		21.6.2. Creep
		21.6.3. Hardness
		21.6.4. Refractoriness
	21.7. Cement
		21.7.1. Cement as an engineering material
	21.8. Semiconductors
		21.8.1. Doping
		21.8.2. Production of doped silicon chips
22. Glasses
	22.1. Introduction
	22.2. Composition and structure of glass
	22.3. Glass-transition temperature
		22.3.1. Devitrification
		22.3.2. Glass ceramics
	22.4. Glass manufacture
		22.4.1. Float process
		22.4.2. Glass blowing
	22.5. The properties of glass
	22.6. Glasses and their uses
		22.6.1. Pyrex
		22.6.2. Glass ceramics
	22.7. Metallic glasses
23. Composite materials
	23.1. Introduction
		23.1.1. Particle composites
	23.2. Particle-hardened composites
	23.3. Dispersion-hardened materials
		23.3.1. Sintered aluminium powder
		23.3.2. Manufacturing processes
		23.3.3. Modern superalloys
	23.4. Mortar and concrete
		23.4.1. Mortar
		23.4.2. Concrete
	23.5. Tarmacadam
24. Fibre-reinforced composite materials
	24.1. Introduction
		24.1.1. Artificial fibre-reinforced composites
	24.2. Unidirectional composites
		24.2.1. Relative density of composites
		24.2.2. Tensile strength of composites
		24.2.3. Modulus of composites
	24.3. Fibres
		24.3.1. Glass fibre
		24.3.2. Carbon fibre
		24.3.3. Boron fibre
		24.3.4. Aramid fibre
		24.3.5. Other fibres
	24.4. Matrix materials
		24.4.1. Thermosetting resins
		24.4.2. Thermoplastic polymers
		24.4.3. Metals
		24.4.4. Composites in modern aircraft
	24.5. Mechanical properties
	24.6. Fibre-composite manufacture
		24.6.1. Poltrusion
		24.6.2. ‘Hand-and-spray’ placement
		24.6.3. Press moulding
		24.6.4. Resin-transfer moulding
		24.6.5. Metal matrix composites
	24.7. Uses of fibre-reinforced composites
	24.8. Reinforced wood
		24.8.1. Laminated wood
		24.8.2. Plywood, blockboard and particleboard
		24.8.3. Corrugated cardboard
		24.8.4. Honeycomb panels
	24.9 Reinforced concrete
25. Methods of joining materials
	25.1. Introduction
	25.2. Adhesives
		25.2.1. Service requirements
	25.3. Soldering and brazing
		25.3.1. Soldering
		25.3.2. Brazing
	25.4. Welding
	25.5. Arc-welding processes
		25.5.1. Metallic-arc welding
		25.5.2. Submerged-arc welding
		25.5.3. Gas-shielded arc-welding
		25.5.4. Plasma-arc welding
		25.5.5. Summary of arc-welding processes
	25.6. Electric resistance welding
		25.6.1. Spot-welding
		25.6.2. Projection-welding
		25.6.3. Seam-welding
		25.6.4. Butt-welding
		25.6.5. Flash-welding
		25.6.6. Electro-slag welding
		25.6.7. Induction welding
	25.7. Thermo-chemical welding
		25.7.1. Oxyacetylene welding
		25.7.2. Thermit welding
	25.8. Radiation welding
		25.8.1. Laser welding
	25.9. Solid-state welding
		25.9.1. Cold-pressure welding
		25.9.2. Friction-welding
		25.9.3. Explosive welding
	25.10. Structure of welds
	25.11. Welding of plastics
		25.11.1. Hot-gas welding
		25.11.2. Seam- and spot-welding
		25.11.3. Electrofusion-welding
		25.11.4. Stitch-welding
		25.11.5. Jig-welding
		25.11.6. Friction-welding
26. Causes of failure
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Causes of failure
		26.2.1 Types of fracture surfaces
	26.3 Non-destructive testing
		26.3.1 The detection of surface cracks and flaws
		26.3.2 The detection of internal defects
	26.4 Degradation of metals by oxidation
		26.4.1 Attack by sulphur
	26.5 Degradation of metals by electrolytic corrosion
		26.5.1 The electrochemical (or galvanic) series
		26.5.2 Cladding of metal sheets
		26.5.3 Rusting of iron and steel
		26.5.4 Stress corrosion
	26.6 The protection of metal surfaces
		26.6.1 Painting
		26.6.2 Stove-enamelling
		26.6.3 Coating the surface with another metal
		26.6.4 Protection by oxide coatings
		26.6.5 Metals and alloys which are inherently corrosion-resistant
		26.6.6 Galvanic protection
	26.7 Stability of plastics
		26.7.1 Weathering of plastics materials
		26.7.2 Perishing of rubbers
		26.7.3 Stress cracking and crazing of polymers
		26.7.4 Stability to solvents
	26.8 Preservation of timber
		26.8.1 Insect pests
		26.8.2 Fungus attack
	26.9 Service life
27. Choice of materials and processes
	27.1. Introduction
	27.2. Selection of materials
	27.3. Service requirements
		27.3.1. Tensile strength and specific strength
		27.3.2. Stiffness, modulus of elasticity and specific modulus
		27.3.3. Toughness and impact value
		27.3.4. Fatigue resistance
		27.3.5. Creep resistance
		27.3.6. Refractoriness
		27.3.7. Friction and wear resistance
		27.3.8. Stability in the environment
		27.3.9. Electrical conductivity
		27.3.10. Relative costs of important engineering materials
	27.4. Choice of shaping process
		27.4.1. Processes
		27.4.2. Changing conditions
	27.5. Developments in materials
		27.5.1. Smart materials
		27.5.2. Nanomaterials
		27.5.3. Graphene
		27.5.4. Metal foams
		27.5.5. Amorphous metals
	27.6. 3D printing processes
		27.6.1. Fused deposition modelling (FDM)
		27.6.2. Powder bed fusion
		27.6.3 Stereolithography
28. Selection of materials
	28.1. Introduction
	28.2. Material property limits
	28.3. Material property indices
	28.4. Material cost sensitivity
	28.5. Case studies of materials, their processing and performance in use
		28.5.1. Car bodywork
		28.5.2. High-voltage electrical power transmission
		28.5.3. Toilet seats
		28.5.4. Lego bricks
		28.5.5. Running shoes
		28.5.6. Hip replacement implants
	28.6. The materials lifecycle
	28.7. End of life of products
		28.7.1. Household waste materials management procedures
	28.8. Sustainable materials
Appendix A: Properties of engineering metals
Appendix B: Glossary of key terms
Index