Fundamentals of Geophysics, 3rd Edition
- Length: 426 pages
- Edition: 3
- Language: English
- Publisher: Cambridge University Press
- Publication Date: 2020-02-13
- ISBN-10: 1108492738
- ISBN-13: 9781108492737
- Sales Rank: #3363577 (See Top 100 Books)
This enduringly popular undergraduate textbook has been thoroughly reworked and updated, and now comprises twelve chapters covering the same breadth of topics as earlier editions, but in a substantially modernized fashion to facilitate classroom teaching. Covering both theoretical and applied aspects of geophysics, clear explanations of the physical principles are blended with step-by-step derivations of the key equations and over 400 explanatory figures to explain the internal structure and properties of the planet, including its petroleum and mineral resources. New topics include the latest data acquisition technologies, such as satellite geophysics, planetary landers, ocean bottom seismometers, and fibre optic methods, as well as recent research developments in ambient noise interferometry, seismic hazard analysis, rheology, and numerical modelling – all illustrated with examples from the scientific literature. Student-friendly features include separate text boxes with auxiliary explanations and advanced topics of interest; reading lists of foundational, alternative, or more detailed resources; end-of-chapter review questions and an increased number of quantitative exercises. Completely new to this edition is the addition of computational exercises in Python, designed to help students acquire important programming skills and develop a more profound understanding of geophysics.
Half title Title page Imprints page Dedication Contents Preface 1 The Solar System 1.1 The Planets 1.1.1 Conservation of Energy and Angular Momentum 1.1.2 Origin of the Solar System 1.2 The Discovery of the Planets and Determination of Their Orbits 1.2.1 Bode’s Law 1.3 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion 1.4 Characteristics of the Planets and Their Orbits 1.5 The Inner (Terrestrial) Planets and the Moon 1.5.1 Mercury 1.5.2 Venus 1.5.3 The Earth 1.5.4 The Moon 1.5.5 Mars 1.5.6 The Asteroids 1.6 The Outer (Giant) Planets 1.6.1 Jupiter 1.6.2 Saturn 1.6.3 Uranus 1.6.4 Neptune 1.7 The Outer Solar System: Trans-Neptunian Objects 1.7.1 Pluto and Charon 1.7.2 The Kuiper Belt, Scattered Disk Objects, and the Oort Cloud 1.8 Suggestions for Further Reading 1.9 Review Questions 1.10 Exercises 2 Plate Tectonics 2.1 Historical Introduction 2.2 Continental Drift 2.2.1 Pangea 2.2.2 Computer-Assisted Reconstructions 2.2.3 Paleomagnetism and Continental Drift 2.3 Earth Structure 2.3.1 Lithospheric Plates 2.4 Types of Plate Margin 2.5 Sea-Floor Spreading 2.5.1 The Vine–Matthews–Morley Hypothesis 2.5.2 Rates of Sea-Floor Spreading 2.5.3 Models of Plate Motions 2.6 Plate Margin Features 2.6.1 Constructive Margins 2.6.2 Destructive Margins 2.6.3 Conservative Margins 2.6.4 Diffuse Margins 2.7 Triple Junctions 2.7.1 Stability of Triple Junctions 2.7.2 Evolution of Triple Junctions in the Northeast Pacific 2.8 Hotspots 2.9 Plate Motion on the Surface of a Sphere 2.9.1 Euler Poles of Rotation 2.10 Forces Driving Plate Tectonic Motions 2.10.1 Forces Acting on Lithospheric Plates 2.10.2 Relative Magnitudes of Forces Driving Plate Motions 2.11 Suggestions for Further Reading 2.12 Review Questions 2.13 Exercises 2.14 Computational Exercises 3 Gravity and the Figure of the Earth 3.1 The Earth’s Size and Shape 3.1.1 The Earth’s Size 3.1.2 The Earth’s Shape 3.2 Gravitation 3.2.1 The Law of Universal Gravitation 3.2.1.1 The Gravitational Constant, G 3.2.1.2 Potential Energy and Work 3.2.2 Gravitational Acceleration 3.2.2.1 Gravitational Potential 3.2.2.2 Acceleration and Potential of a Distribution of Mass 3.2.2.3 Mass and Mean Density of the Earth 3.2.3 The Equipotential Surface 3.3 The Earth’s Rotation 3.3.1 Introduction 3.3.2 Centripetal and Centrifugal Acceleration 3.3.2.1 Centripetal Acceleration 3.3.2.2 Centrifugal Acceleration and Potential 3.3.2.3 Kepler’s Third Law of Planetary Motion 3.3.2.4 Verification of the Inverse Square Law of Gravitation 3.3.3 Coriolis and Eötvös Accelerations 3.3.4 The Tides 3.3.4.1 Lunar Tidal Periodicity 3.3.4.2 Tidal Effect of the Sun 3.3.4.3 Spring and Neap Tides 3.3.4.4 Effect of the Tides on Gravity Measurements 3.3.4.5 Bodily Earth Tides 3.3.4.6 Love’s Numbers 3.3.5 Changes in the Earth’s Rotation 3.3.5.1 Effect of Lunar Tidal Friction on the Length of the Day 3.3.5.2 Increase of the Earth–Moon Distance 3.3.5.3 The Chandler Wobble 3.3.5.4 Precession and Nutation of the Rotation Axis 3.3.5.5 Milankovitch Climatic Cycles 3.4 The Earth’s Figure and Gravity 3.4.1 The Figure of the Earth 3.4.2 Gravitational Potential of the Spheroidal Earth 3.4.3 Gravity and Its Potential 3.4.4 Normal Gravity 3.4.4.1 International Gravity Formula 3.4.4.2 Clairaut’s Theorem 3.4.5 The Geoid 3.4.5.1 Geoid Undulations 3.5 Space Geodesy 3.5.1 Geodesy with Artificial Satellites 3.5.2 Satellite Laser-Ranging 3.5.3 Satellite Altimetry 3.5.4 Global Navigation Satellite Systems 3.5.5 Measurement of Gravity and the Geoid from Orbiting Satellites 3.5.6 Time-Dependent Changes in the Earth’s Mass Distribution 3.5.7 Observations of Crustal Deformation with Synthetic Aperture Radar 3.5.8 Very Long Baseline Interferometry 3.6 Suggestions for Further Reading 3.7 Review Questions 3.8 Exercises 3.9 Computational Exercises 4 Gravity Surveying 4.1 Gravity Measurement and Reduction 4.1.1 Absolute and Relative Measurement of Gravity 4.1.2 Absolute Measurement of Gravity 4.1.2.1 Free-Fall Method 4.1.2.2 Rise-and-Fall Method 4.1.2.3 Absolute Gravity Networks 4.1.3 Relative Measurement of Gravity: The Gravimeter 4.1.3.1 The Superconducting Gravimeter 4.1.3.2 The Gravity Gradiometer 4.1.4 Gravity Survey Methods 4.1.4.1 Airborne Gravimetry 4.1.5 Correction of Gravity Measurements 4.1.5.1 Time-Dependent Corrections 4.1.5.2 Latitude Correction 4.1.5.3 Terrain Corrections 4.1.5.4 Bouguer Plate Correction 4.1.5.5 Free-Air Correction 4.1.5.6 Combined Elevation Correction 4.1.6 Density Determination 4.1.6.1 Density from Seismic Velocities 4.1.6.2 Gamma–Gamma Logging 4.1.6.3 Borehole Gravimetry 4.1.6.4 Nettleton’s Method for Near-Surface Density 4.1.7 Free-Air and Bouguer Gravity Anomalies 4.2 Interpretation of Gravity Anomalies 4.2.1 Regional and Residual Anomalies 4.2.2 Separation of Regional and Residual Anomalies 4.2.2.1 Visual Analysis 4.2.2.2 Polynomial Representation 4.2.2.3 Representation of Gravity Anomalies by Fourier Series 4.2.2.4 Anomaly Enhancement and Filtering 4.2.2.5 Upward and Downward Continuation 4.2.3 Modeling Gravity Anomalies 4.2.3.1 Uniform Sphere: Model for a Diapir 4.2.3.2 Horizontal Line Element 4.2.3.3 Horizontal Cylinder: Model for Anticline or Syncline 4.2.3.4 Horizontal Thin Sheet 4.2.3.5 Horizontal Slab: Model for a Vertical Fault 4.2.3.6 Iterative Modeling 4.2.4 Interpretation of Regional Gravity Anomalies 4.2.4.1 Continental and Oceanic Gravity Anomalies 4.2.4.2 Gravity Anomalies Across Mountain Chains 4.2.4.3 Gravity Anomalies Across an Oceanic Ridge 4.2.4.4 Gravity Anomalies at Subduction Zones 4.3 Isostasy 4.3.1 The Discovery of Isostasy 4.3.2 Models of Isostasy 4.3.2.1 The Airy–Heiskanen Model 4.3.2.2 The Pratt–Hayford Model 4.3.2.3 Vening Meinesz Elastic Plate Model 4.3.3 Isostatic Compensation and Vertical Crustal Movements 4.3.4 Isostatic Gravity Anomalies 4.4 Suggestions for Further Reading 4.5 Review Questions 4.6 Exercises 4.7 Computational Exercises 5 Rheology of the Earth 5.1 Elastic Deformation 5.1.1 Elastic Behavior of Materials 5.1.2 The Stress Matrix 5.1.3 The Strain Matrix 5.1.3.1 Longitudinal Strain 5.1.3.2 Dilatation 5.1.3.3 Shear Strain 5.1.4 The Elastic Moduli 5.1.4.1 Bulk Modulus in Terms of Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio 5.1.4.2 Shear Modulus in Terms of Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio 5.1.4.3 The Lamé Constants 5.1.4.4 Anisotropy 5.2 Viscous Flow 5.2.1 Solid-State Flow 5.2.2 Viscous Flow in Liquids 5.2.3 The Mechanisms of Flow in Solids 5.2.3.1 Crystals and Crystal Defects 5.2.3.2 Creep Mechanisms in the Earth 5.3 Deviations from Perfect Elasticity and Viscous Flow 5.3.1 Anelasticity: Delayed Deformation 5.3.2 Viscoelasticity: Delayed and Non-Recoverable Deformation 5.3.3 Plastic Flow 5.3.4 Fracture and the Brittle–Ductile Transition 5.4 Lithosphere Rigidity 5.4.1 Lithospheric Flexure Caused by Oceanic Islands 5.4.2 Lithospheric Flexure at a Subduction Zone 5.4.3 Thickness of Oceanic Lithosphere 5.5 Mantle Viscosity 5.5.1 Viscosity of the Upper Mantle 5.5.2 Viscosity of the Lower Mantle 5.6 Suggestions for Further Reading 5.7 Review Questions 5.8 Exercises 5.9 Computational Exercises 6 Seismology 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Seismic Waves 6.2.1 Introduction 6.2.2 Seismic Body Waves 6.2.2.1 Compressional Waves 6.2.2.2 Transverse Waves 6.2.2.3 The Solution of the Seismic Wave Equation in a Homogeneous Medium 6.2.2.4 D’Alembert’s Principle 6.2.2.5 The Eikonal Equation 6.2.2.6 The Energy in a Seismic Wave 6.2.2.7 Attenuation of Seismic Waves 6.2.3 Seismic Surface Waves 6.2.3.1 Rayleigh Waves 6.2.3.2 Love Waves 6.2.3.3 The Dispersion of Surface Waves 6.2.4 Free Oscillations of the Earth 6.2.4.1 Spheroidal Oscillations 6.2.4.2 Toroidal Oscillations 6.2.4.3 Comparison with Surface Waves 6.2.5 Seismic Anisotropy 6.3 Seismic Waves in the Heterogeneous Earth 6.3.1 Introduction 6.3.2 Huygens’ Principle 6.3.2.1 The Law of Reflection Using Huygens’ Principle 6.3.2.2 The Law of Refraction Using Huygens’ Principle 6.3.2.3 Diffraction 6.3.3 Fermat’s Principle 6.3.3.1 The Law of Reflection Using Fermat’s Principle 6.3.3.2 The Law of Refraction Using Fermat’s Principle 6.3.4 Partitioning of Seismic Body Waves at a Boundary 6.3.4.1 Subcritical and Supercritical Reflections, and Critical Refraction 6.3.5 Reflection of Seismic Waves in Layered Media 6.3.5.1 Reflection at a Horizontal Interface 6.3.5.2 Reflection at an Inclined Interface 6.3.5.3 Reflection and Transmission Coefficients 6.3.5.4 Noise, Surface Waves, and Multiple Reflections 6.3.5.5 Reflection Seismic Section 6.3.6 Refraction of Seismic Waves in Layered Media 6.3.6.1 Refraction at a Horizontal Interface 6.3.6.2 Refraction at an Inclined Interface 6.3.6.3 Refraction with Continuous Change of Velocity with Depth 6.3.7 Numerical Solutions of the Wave Equation 6.3.7.1 The Finite-Difference Method 6.3.7.2 Alternative Methods and Modern Developments 6.4 Ambient Seismic Waves 6.4.1 Introduction 6.4.2 Nature and Sources of Ambient Noise 6.4.2.1 Phenomenology of Ambient Noise Recordings 6.4.2.2 Physical Origin of Ambient Noise 6.4.3 Noise Interferometry 6.5 Seismometry 6.5.1 Introduction 6.5.2 Principle of the Inertial Seismometer 6.5.2.1 Vertical-Motion Seismometer 6.5.2.2 Horizontal-Motion Seismometer 6.5.3 The Equation of the Seismometer 6.5.3.1 Effect of Instrumental Damping 6.5.3.2 Long-Period and Short-Period Seismometers 6.5.3.3 Broadband Seismometers 6.5.4 Data Acquisition 6.5.4.1 Seismic Exploration 6.5.4.2 Regional and Global Seismology 6.5.5 Developments in Seismic Instrumentation 6.6 Suggestions for Further Reading 6.7 Review Questions 6.8 Exercises 6.9 Computational Exercises 7 Earthquakes and the Earth’s Internal Structure 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Earthquake Seismology 7.2.1 Types of Earthquakes 7.2.2 Elastic Rebound Model 7.2.3 Location of the Epicenter of an Earthquake 7.2.4 Global Seismicity 7.2.5 Analysis of Earthquake Focal Mechanisms 7.2.5.1 Single-Couple and Double-Couple Radiation Patterns 7.2.5.2 Fault Plane Solutions 7.2.5.3 Mechanics of Faulting 7.2.5.4 Focal Mechanisms at Active Plate Margins 7.2.5.5 Focal Mechanisms in Continental Collisional Zones 7.2.6 Earthquake Size 7.2.6.1 Earthquake Intensity 7.2.6.2 Earthquake Magnitude 7.2.6.3 Relationship Between Magnitude and Intensity 7.2.7 Energy Released in an Earthquake 7.2.8 Earthquake Frequency 7.3 Earthquakes and Human Society 7.3.1 Earthquake Prediction, Forecasting, and Early Warning 7.3.1.1 Attempts to Predict Earthquakes 7.3.1.2 Earthquake Forecasting and Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis 7.3.1.3 Earthquake Early Warning 7.3.2 Secondary Effects of Earthquakes: Landslides, Tsunamis, Fires, and Fatalities 7.3.3 Induced Seismicity 7.3.4 Nuclear Explosion Monitoring 7.4 Internal Structure of the Earth 7.4.1 Introduction 7.4.2 Refractions and Reflections in the Earth’s Interior 7.4.2.1 Seismic Rays in a Uniformly Layered Earth 7.4.2.2 Travel Time Curves for P-, PKP-, and PKIKP-Waves in the Earth 7.4.2.3 Reverberations within Shallow Layers 7.4.3 Inversion of Seismic Data 7.4.3.1 Direct Inversion of Travel Time versus Distance Curves 7.4.3.2 Indirect Inversion of Travel Times and Seismic Tomography 7.4.3.3 Seismic Waveform Tomography 7.4.4 Radial Variations of Seismic Velocities in the Earth 7.4.4.1 The Upper Mantle 7.4.4.2 The Lower Mantle 7.4.4.3 The Core 7.4.5 Radial Variations of Density, Gravity, and Pressure 7.4.5.1 Density Inside the Earth 7.4.5.2 Gravity and Pressure Inside the Earth 7.4.6 Three-Dimensional Earth Structure and Its Relation to Geodynamic Processes 7.4.6.1 The Crust 7.4.6.2 The Upper Mantle 7.4.6.3 The 410 and 660 km Discontinuities 7.4.6.4 The Lower Mantle 7.5 Suggestions for Further Reading 7.6 Review Questions 7.7 Exercises 7.8 Computational Exercises 8 Geochronology 8.1 Time 8.1.1 The Clock 8.1.2 Units of Time 8.1.3 The Geological Timescale 8.2 Historical Estimates of the Earth’s Age 8.2.1 Cooling of the Sun 8.2.2 Cooling of the Earth 8.2.3 Increase of the Earth–Moon Separation 8.2.4 Oceanic Salinity 8.2.5 Sedimentary Accumulation 8.3 Radioactivity 8.3.1 Radioactive Decay 8.4 Radiometric Age Determination 8.4.1 Radioactive Carbon 8.4.2 The Mass Spectrometer 8.4.3 Rubidium–Strontium 8.4.4 Potassium–Argon 8.4.5 Argon–Argon 8.4.6 Uranium–Lead: the Concordia–Discordia Diagram 8.4.7 Lead–Lead Isochrons 8.4.8 Radiometric Dating of Environmental Processes 8.5 Ages of the Earth and the Solar System 8.6 Suggestions for Further Reading 8.7 Review Questions 8.8 Exercises 8.9 Computational Exercises 9 The Earth’s Heat 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Thermodynamic Principles 9.3 Temperature Inside the Earth 9.3.1 The Adiabatic Temperature Gradient 9.3.2 The Melting Point Gradient 9.4 Heat Transport in the Earth 9.4.1 Conduction 9.4.2 Convection 9.4.3 Radiation 9.5 Sources of Heat in the Earth 9.5.1 Radioactive Heat Production 9.6 The Heat Conduction Equation 9.6.1 Penetration of External Heat into the Earth 9.6.2 Cooling of the Oceanic Lithosphere 9.7 Continental Heat Flow 9.7.1 Surface Temperature Changes Inferred from Borehole Temperature Profiles 9.7.2 Variation of Continental Heat Flow with Age 9.7.3 Heat Transfer through Porous Crustal Rocks 9.8 Oceanic Heat Flow 9.8.1 Variation of Oceanic Heat Flow and Depth with Lithospheric Age 9.8.2 Global Heat Flow 9.8.3 Models for the Cooling of Oceanic Lithosphere 9.8.4 Thermal Structure of Oceanic Lithosphere 9.8.5 Heat Flow at Subduction Zones 9.9 Mantle Convection 9.9.1 Thermal Convection 9.9.2 Convection at High Rayleigh Numbers 9.9.3 Models of Mantle Convection 9.9.4 The D″ Layer and Superplumes 9.9.5 Mantle Plumes and Hotspots 9.10 Suggestions for Further Reading 9.11 Review Questions 9.12 Exercises 9.13 Computational Exercises 10 Geoelectricity 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Electrical Principles 10.2.1 Electric Field and Potential 10.2.2 Ohm’s Law 10.2.3 Types of Electrical Conduction 10.3 Electrical Properties of the Earth 10.3.1 Electrical Surveying 10.4 Natural Potentials and Currents 10.4.1 Self-Potential (Spontaneous Potential) 10.4.2 Self-Potential Surveying 10.4.3 Telluric Currents 10.5 Resistivity Surveying 10.5.1 Potential of a Single Electrode 10.5.2 The General Four-Electrode Method 10.5.3 Special Electrode Configurations 10.5.4 Current Distribution 10.5.5 Apparent Resistivity 10.5.6 Vertical Electrical Sounding 10.5.7 Induced Polarization 10.5.8 Electrical Resistivity Tomography 10.6 Electromagnetic Surveying 10.6.1 Electromagnetic Induction 10.6.2 EM Induction Surveying 10.6.3 Transient Electromagnetic Surveying 10.6.4 Magnetotelluric Exploration 10.6.5 Ocean Current Circulation and Upper Mantle Conductivity 10.6.6 Ground Penetrating Radar 10.7 Electrical Conductivity in the Earth 10.8 Suggestions for Further Reading 10.9 Review Questions 10.10 Exercises 10.11 Computational Exercises 11 The Earth’s Magnetic Field 11.1 Magnetism 11.1.1 The Discovery of Magnetism 11.1.2 Pioneering Studies in Terrestrial Magnetism 11.1.3 The Magnetic Dipole 11.2 Geomagnetism 11.2.1 The Geomagnetic Elements 11.2.2 Separation of the Magnetic Fields of External and Internal Origin 11.2.3 The Magnetic Field of External Origin 11.2.3.1 The Van Allen Radiation Belts 11.2.3.2 The Ionosphere 11.2.3.3 Diurnal Variation and Magnetic Storms 11.2.4 The Magnetic Field of Internal Origin 11.2.4.1 Magnetic Field on the Surface of the Core 11.2.4.2 The Geomagnetic Dipole Field 11.2.4.3 The Geomagnetic Non-Dipole Field 11.2.5 Secular Variation 11.2.5.1 Secular Variation of the Dipole Field 11.2.5.2 Secular Variation of the Non-Dipole Field 11.2.6 Origin of the Internal Field 11.2.6.1 Magnetostatic and Electromagnetic Models 11.2.6.2 The Geomagnetic Dynamo 11.2.6.3 Simulation of the Geodynamo 11.3 Magnetic Fields of the Sun, Moon, and Planets 11.3.1 Magnetic Fields of the Sun and Moon 11.3.1.1 Magnetic Field of the Sun 11.3.1.2 Magnetic Field of the Moon 11.3.2 Magnetic Fields of the Planets 11.3.2.1 Mercury, Venus, and Mars 11.3.2.2 The Giant Planets and Pluto 11.4 Magnetic Surveying 11.4.1 The Magnetization of the Earth’s Crust 11.4.2 Magnetometers 11.4.2.1 The Flux-Gate Magnetometer 11.4.2.2 The Proton-Precession Magnetometer 11.4.2.3 The Absorption Cell Magnetometer 11.4.3 Magnetic Survey Methods 11.4.3.1 Measurement Methods 11.4.3.2 Magnetic Gradiometers 11.4.3.3 The Survey Pattern 11.4.4 Reduction of Magnetic Field Measurements 11.4.5 Magnetic Anomalies 11.4.5.1 Magnetic Anomaly of a Surface Distribution of Magnetic Poles 11.4.5.2 Magnetic Anomaly of a Vertical Dike 11.4.5.3 Magnetic Anomaly of an Inclined Magnetization 11.4.5.4 Magnetic Anomalies of Simple Geometric Bodies (1) Sphere (2) Horizontal Cylinder (3) Horizontal Crustal Block 11.4.5.5 Effect of Block Width on Anomaly Shape 11.4.6 Oceanic Magnetic Anomalies 11.5 Suggestions for Further Reading 11.6 Review Questions 11.7 Exercises 11.8 Computational Exercises 12 Paleomagnetism 12.1 Rock Magnetism 12.1.1 Introduction 12.1.1.1 Magnetization and the Magnetic Field Inside a Material 12.1.2 Mineral Magnetism 12.1.3 The Ternary Oxide System of Magnetic Minerals 12.1.3.1 The Titanomagnetite Series 12.1.3.2 The Titanohematite Series 12.1.4 Other Ferrimagnetic Minerals 12.1.5 Identification of Ferrimagnetic Minerals 12.1.6 Grain Size Dependence of Ferrimagnetic Properties 12.1.6.1 Superparamagnetism 12.1.6.2 Single-Domain Particles 12.1.6.3 Multidomain Particles 12.1.6.4 Pseudo-Single-Domain Particles 12.1.6.5 First-Order Reversal Curves 12.1.7 Remanent Magnetizations in Rocks 12.1.7.1 Thermoremanent Magnetization 12.1.7.2 Sedimentary Remanent Magnetizations 12.1.7.3 Chemical Remanent Magnetization 12.1.7.4 Isothermal Remanent Magnetization 12.1.7.5 Other Remanent Magnetizations 12.1.8 Environmental Magnetism 12.2 Apparent Polar Wander and Tectonics 12.2.1 Rock Magnetization and Continental Drift 12.2.2 The Time-Averaged Geomagnetic Field 12.2.2.1 Archeomagnetic Records of Secular Variation 12.2.2.2 The Geocentric Axial Dipole Hypothesis 12.2.3 Methods of Paleomagnetism 12.2.3.1 Measurement of Remanent Magnetization 12.2.3.2 Stepwise Progressive Demagnetization 12.2.3.3 Statistical Analysis of Paleomagnetic Directions 12.2.3.4 Field Tests of Magnetization Stability 12.2.4 Paleomagnetism and Tectonics 12.2.4.1 Location of the Virtual Geomagnetic Pole 12.2.4.2 Apparent Polar Wander Paths 12.2.4.3 Paleogeographic Reconstructions Using APW Paths 12.2.4.4 Paleomagnetism and Continental Drift 12.2.4.5 Absolute Plate Motions and True Polar Wander 12.2.5 Paleozoic and Precambrian Paleomagnetism 12.2.5.1 Paleozoic Supercontinents 12.2.5.2 The Break-Up of Pangea 12.2.5.3 Precambrian Paleomagnetism and the Early Geodynamo 12.3 Geomagnetic Polarity 12.3.1 Introduction 12.3.1.1 Geomagnetic Polarity Transitions 12.3.1.2 Geomagnetic Polarity Intervals 12.3.2 Magnetostratigraphy in Lavas and Sediments 12.3.3 Marine Magnetic Anomalies and Geomagnetic Polarity History 12.3.3.1 Marine Magnetic Anomalies 12.3.3.2 Uniformity of Sea-Floor Spreading 12.3.3.3 The Marine Record of Geomagnetic Polarity History 12.3.4 Geomagnetic Polarity Timescales 12.3.4.1 Magnetostratigraphic Calibration of Marine Polarity Sequences 12.3.4.2 Frequency of Polarity Reversals 12.3.4.3 Reconstruction of Plate Tectonic Motions 12.3.5 Early Mesozoic and Paleozoic Reversal History 12.4 Suggestions for Further Reading 12.5 Review Questions 12.6 Exercises 12.7 Computational Exercises Appendices Appendix A The Three-Dimensional Wave Equation General Equations of Motion Longitudinal Waves Transverse Waves Appendix B Cooling of a Semi-Infinite Half-Space Evaluation of the Integral Y0 in Appendix C Magnetic Behavior of Rock-Forming Minerals Diamagnetism Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism Antiferromagnetism Parasitic Ferromagnetism Ferrimagnetism Appendix D Magnetic Anisotropy Magnetostatic (Shape) Anisotropy Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy Magnetostrictive Anisotropy Bibliography Index
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