Electrical Steels, Volume 2: Performance and Applications
- Length: 664 pages
- Edition: 1
- Language: English
- Publisher: The Institution of Engineering and Technology
- Publication Date: 2019-07-04
- ISBN-10: 1785619721
- ISBN-13: 9781785619724
- Sales Rank: #10647109 (See Top 100 Books)
Electrical steels are critical components of magnetic cores used in applications ranging from large rotating machines, including energy generating equipment, and transformers to small instrument transformers and harmonic filters. Presented over two volumes, this comprehensive handbook provides full coverage of the state-of-the-art in electrical steels.
Volume 2 describes performance and outlines applications of electrical steels. Topics covered include localised characteristics of electrical steels; practical properties of electrical steels; other electrical steels; prediction of losses in electrical steels; application of electrical steels in transformer cores; applications of electrical steels in rotating electrical machines; non-sinusoidal magnetisation and applications; magnetic building factors in electrical steel cores; use of amorphous ribbon and nano-materials in transformer cores; electrical machine core vibration and noise; approaches to predictions and measurements of flux density and loss distributions in electrical machine cores; the application of international standards to magnetic alloys and steels; electrical steels and renewable energy systems; environmental impact of electrical steels; and typical performance data of commercial electrical steels.
The companion Volume 1 covers the fundamentals and basic concepts of electrical steels.
Cover Title Copyright Contents Acknowledgements Preface Common acronyms, symbols and abbreviations used in the text Introduction to Volume 2 About the authors 1 Localised characteristics of electrical steels 1.1 Overview of content of Chapter 1 1.2 Effects of grain structure on domains, losses and magnetostriction in GO steel 1.2.1 Static domain structures 1.2.2 Presence and effect of lancet domains 1.2.3 Effect of grain misorientation on surface domain structures 1.2.4 Effect of grain misorientation on losses and magnetostriction 1.3 Estimation of losses in single crystals of SiFe 1.3.1 Hysteresis loss caused by motion of a single domain wall 1.3.2 Total loss associated with a single domain wall in GO steel 1.4 Significance of the width of main domains in GO steels 1.5 Domain wall bowing in GO steel 1.6 Combined effect of main and supplementary domains in GO steel 1.6.1 Local effects of thickness on losses 1.6.2 Effect of grain size on losses 1.7 Wall spacing and losses in grains of GO SiFe under a.c. magnetisation 1.7.1 Effects related to main wall spacing 1.7.2 Grain-to-grain interactions across grain boundaries in GO steels 1.7.3 Domain refinement processes 1.8 Domain studies in NO electrical steels 1.9 Internal domain structure in GO steel 1.10 Rotational losses in single grains 1.11 Localised magnetostriction 1.11.1 Magnetostriction in single grains of GO steel 1.11.2 A hypothetical model of the effect of surrounding grains on the magnetostriction of a single grain 1.11.3 Localised stress sensitivity of magnetostriction of GO steel 1.12 Surface magnetic features of GO steel 1.12.1 Background 1.12.2 Variation of the tangential component of surface field 1.12.3 Localised flux density and loss distribution 1.13 Losses under PWM excitation 1.14 Defects and precipitates 1.15 Analysis of the stress due to the coating on GO steel 1.15.1 Coating-induced stress 1.15.2 Differential contraction mechanism 1.15.3 Total stress induced during the coating processes 1.15.4 Practical separation of effects of coating stresses 1.16 Barkhausen effect References 2 Practical properties of electrical steels 2.1 Permeability of electrical steels 2.2 Losses 2.2.1 Loss separation in commercial electrical steels 2.2.2 Rotational losses 2.3 Stress sensitivity of losses 2.3.1 Introduction 2.3.2 Stress sensitivity of NO steel 2.3.3 Stress sensitivity of GO steel 2.4 Magnetostriction 2.4.1 Assessment of stress sensitivity 2.4.2 Aspects of low magnetostriction GO steels 2.4.3 Effect of coating on stress sensitivity of magnetostriction of GO steel 2.5 Domain refinement of GO steels 2.5.1 Background 2.5.2 Effectiveness of domain refinement techniques 2.5.3 Prototyping and commercial methods of domain refinement 2.5.4 Other aspect of domain refinement 2.5.5 Two-sided scribing 2.5.6 Relationship between domain refinement and transformer characteristics 2.6 Angular dependence of loss in electrical steel 2.6.1 NO steel 2.6.2 GO steel 2.7 High and low-field properties of electrical steel 2.7.1 High flux density characteristics of GO steel 2.7.2 Low flux density characteristics 2.8 Effect of d.c. magnetisation bias 2.9 Performance of NO steels under PWM waveforms 2.9.1 Examples of loss variation with flux density, magnetising frequency and sheet thickness 2.9.2 Comparison between loss components in NO and GO steels under PWM excitation 2.10 Coatings and surface roughness 2.10.1 Coating on NO steel 2.10.2 Coatings on GO steel 2.11 Current and future trends in electrical steels 2.11.1 Progress in recent years 2.11.2 Drivers for improved electrical steels 2.11.3 Other factors 2.11.4 Possibilities for incremental improvements References 3 Other electrical steels 3.1 High silicon steel 3.1.1 Background and potential 3.1.2 Methods of increasing alloying content by chemical diffusion 3.1.3 Commercial material 3.2 Cube-oriented electrical steel 3.3 Ultra-thin and automotive grade electrical steel 3.3.1 Ultra-thin electrical steel 3.3.2 Automotive NO steels References 4 Prediction of losses in electrical steels 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Hysteresis modelling 4.2.1 Preisach models 4.2.2 Jiles–Atherton Model 4.3 Micro-magnetic approaches to loss prediction 4.4 Loss separation methods 4.5 Loss prediction under arbitrary flux density waveforms 4.6 Statistical theory of losses (STL) 4.7 Other approaches to loss prediction 4.8 An anecdotal historic perspective References 5 Application of electrical steels in transformer cores 5.1 General background and types of transformers 5.2 Basic theory 5.3 Losses and efficiency 5.4 Equivalent circuit 5.5 Basic forms of transformers incorporating GO steel cores 5.6 Flux distribution in a 3-phase stacked cores 5.7 Strip wound cores 5.8 Stacked cores 5.9 Flux and loss distributions in joints of stacked cores 5.9.1 The double overlap joint 5.9.2 The butt–lap joint 5.9.3 The 45° mitred overlap joint 5.9.4 The T-joint 5.10 Packet-to-packet variation of properties of laminations in stacked cores 5.10.1 100 kVA 3-phase, 3-limb, 9-packet, single step-lap core [74] 5.10.2 12 MVA, 3-phase, 3-limb, 29 step, core [96] 5.11 Some effects of mixing grades of steels in a core 5.12 Effect of holes in laminations 5.13 Effects of coating defects and edge burrs 5.13.1 Interlaminar voltage and eddy currents due to core defects 5.13.2 Eddy current formation due to core defects 5.13.3 Detection of core faults 5.13.4 Investigations of the effects of artificial burrs 5.14 Circulating flux harmonics in transformer cores 5.15 Prediction of flux and loss distributions in cores 5.16 Capitalisation of transformer losses 5.17 The global power transformer market References 6 Applications of electrical steel in rotating electrical machines 6.1 Basic principles of motors and generators 6.2 The d.c. rotating machine 6.2.1 Commutator action 6.2.2 The magnetic field of a d.c. machine 6.3 Practical layout of the d.c. machine 6.4 D.C. generators 6.5 D.C. motors 6.6 Efficiency and building factor of a d.c. machine 6.7 A.C. machines 6.7.1 The induction motor 6.7.2 The synchronous machine 6.8 Soft magnetic materials used in small rotating machines 6.9 Categorisation of small motors 6.9.1 Stepper motor 6.9.2 Universal motor 6.9.3 Hysteresis motor 6.9.4 Brushless d.c. motor 6.9.5 Reluctance motor 6.9.6 Switched reluctance motor 6.9.7 Shaded pole motor 6.9.8 Linear motor 6.10 SMC powder cores 6.11 Flux and loss distributions in rotating machine cores 6.12 Flux density and losses in motors under PWM voltage excitation 6.13 Use of electrical machines in variable speed drives 6.14 Generators in wind power systems 6.15 Laminated cores in rotating machines 6.15.1 Traditional lamination route 6.15.2 Slinky-laminated cores 6.16 Rotating electrical machines in automotive applications 6.17 Machine testing 6.17.1 No-load test 6.17.2 Locked-rotor test 6.17.3 Temperature rise References 7 Non-sinusoidal magnetisation and applications 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Power electronic converters 7.2.1 Square wave inverter 7.2.2 PWM inverter 7.2.3 Matrix converters 7.2.4 Space vector modulation 7.3 Losses under distorted waveforms 7.4 Loss models under distorted magnetisation waveforms 7.5 Influence of distorted waveforms on material properties 7.6 Measurement and testing under non-sinusoidal magnetisation References 8 Magnetic building factors in electrical steel cores 8.1 Background 8.2 Definition of the magnetic building factor 8.3 Regional building factors within a core 8.4 Causes and prediction of the BF 8.5 Influence of material grade on the BF 8.6 BF of stacked cores incorporating nanocrystalline and amorphous ribbon References 9 Use of amorphous ribbon and nano-materials in transformer cores 9.1 Amorphous ribbon in transformer cores 9.2 Nano-crystalline alloys 9.3 High silicon steel 9.4 Traction transformer applications 9.5 Flux distributions in stacked amorphous transformer cores References 10 Electrical machine core vibration and noise 10.1 Noise and vibration terminology and analysis 10.1.1 Acoustic noise 10.1.2 Surface vibration 10.1.3 Resonance effects in electrical steel and transformers 10.2 Historical perspective of transformer noise 10.3 Measurement of no-load and load noise 10.4 Magnetic core noise 10.5 Origins of magnetic core vibration 10.5.1 Dimensional changes due to magnetostriction 10.5.2 Dimensional changes due to Maxwell forces 10.5.3 Combined effects of magnetostriction and Maxwell forces 10.6 Correlation between magnetostriction, core vibration and noise 10.6.1 Top and side surfaces 10.6.2 Front surface 10.6.3 Magnetostriction characteristics 10.7 Effect of phase displacement on noise of 3-phase transformer cores 10.8 Effect of core design and material on noise 10.8.1 Core material 10.8.2 Corner overlap length 10.8.3 Number of steps 10.8.4 Number of laminations per step 10.8.5 T-joint configuration 10.8.6 Clamping stress 10.9 Modelling and analysis of core vibration 10.10 Amorphous material in power transformers 10.11 Reduction of noise of transformer cores 10.12 Acoustic noise from rotating electrical machines 10.12.1 Background 10.12.2 Role of magnetostriction References 11 Approaches to predictions and measurements of flux density and loss distributions in electrical machine cores 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Maxwell’s equations 11.3 Computational electromagnetics 11.4 Power-loss prediction in magnetic cores 11.5 Justification of continued use of experimental methods 11.6 Experimental methods References 12 The application of international standards to magnetic alloys and steels 12.1 The development of national and international standards 12.1.1 The International Electrotechnical Commission 12.2 IEC TC 68 – Magnetic alloys and steels 12.2.1 The relationships between the IEC and the European National Committees 12.3 Building standards for electrical steels – grain oriented material 12.3.1 Measurement standards – the Epstein test 12.3.2 Measurement standards – the single sheet test 12.4 Building standards for electrical steels – non-oriented materials 12.5 Standards relating to the geometrical characteristics of electrical steels 12.6 Standards relating to the technological characteristics of electrical steels 12.7 Standards for non-oriented and grain oriented material over the medium frequency range of 400–10,000 Hz 12.8 The development of technical report investigations prior to drafting a standard 12.8.1 Technical report on magnetostriction 12.9 Changes in the European organisations References 13 Electrical steels and renewable energy systems 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Biomass 13.3 Geothermal energy 13.4 Hydroelectric 13.5 Marine energy 13.6 Solar schemes 13.7 Wind energy 13.8 Small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs) 13.9 Historic and predicted growth of electrical power generation from all sources 13.10 Grid development 13.11 Impact on harmonics 13.12 Impact of electric vehicles 13.13 Large-scale energy storage 13.14 The future of non-renewable sources References 14 Environmental impact of electrical steels 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Global impact 14.3 Impact of losses from GO steel on the environment 14.4 Impact of losses in NO steels on the environment 14.5 The impact of losses in electrical steels on greenhouse gas emissions 14.6 Efficiency standards for transformers and motors 14.6.1 Transformers 14.6.2 Motors 14.7 Perceived barriers to the use of TOC concepts 14.8 Concluding remarks References 15 Typical magnetic performance data of commercial electrical steels 15.1 Introduction to sources of performance data 15.1.1 A.C. measurements 15.1.2 D.C. measurements 15.1.3 Magnetostriction measurements 15.1.4 Magnetic measurements under applied stress 15.1.5 Magnetic measurements at elevated temperature 15.2 Ranges of standard characteristics of non-oriented steels 15.2.1 D.C. B–H and permeability characteristics of NO materials 15.2.2 A.C. B–H, permeability and loss characteristics 15.2.3 Comparison of a.c. characteristics of NO electrical steels 15.2.4 Examples of a.c. B–H loop examples in NO electrical steels 15.3 Ranges of standard characteristics of grain oriented steels 15.3.1 D.C. B–H and permeability characteristics 15.3.2 A.C. B–H, permeability and loss characteristics 15.3.3 Comparison of a.c. characteristics of GO electrical steels 15.3.4 Examples of a.c. B–H loop examples in GO electrical steels 15.4 Examples of loss separation in electrical steels 15.5 Characteristics at low and high flux densities 15.6 Characteristics under non-sinusoidal magnetisation conditions 15.7 Stress dependence of loss and permeability 15.7.1 NO materials 15.7.2 GO Materials 15.8 Stress dependence of magnetostriction 15.8.1 NO materials 15.8.2 GO Materials 15.9 Effect of temperature 15.10 Rotational magnetisation Reference Index
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