Circuits, Packets, and Protocols: Entrepreneurs and Computer Communications, 1968-1988

by Andrew L Russell, James L Pelkey, Loring G Robbins

Length: 632 pages
Edition: 1
Language: English
Publisher: ACM Books
Publication Date: 2022-04-19
ISBN-10: 1450397271
ISBN-13: 9781450397278
Sales Rank: #332494 (See Top 100 Books)

As recently as 1968, computer scientists were uncertain how best to interconnect even two computers. The notion that within a few decades the challenge would be how to interconnect millions of computers around the globe was too far-fetched to contemplate. Yet, by 1988, that is precisely what was happening. The products and devices developed in the intervening years-such as modems, multiplexers, local area networks, and routers-became the linchpins of the global digital society. How did such revolutionary innovation occur? This book tells the story of the entrepreneurs who were able to harness and join two factors: the energy of computer science researchers supported by governments and universities, and the tremendous commercial demand for Internetworking computers. The centerpiece of this history comes from unpublished interviews from the late 1980s with over 80 computing industry pioneers, including Paul Baran, J.C.R. Licklider, Vint Cerf, Robert Kahn, Larry Roberts, and Robert Metcalfe. These individuals give us unique insights into the creation of multi-billion dollar markets for computer-communications equipment, and they reveal how entrepreneurs struggled with failure, uncertainty, and the limits of knowledge.

Advanced Praise for Circuits, Packets, and Protocols
Circuits, Packets, and Protocols
Preface and Acknowledgments
	Acknowledgments
		Paul Baran
		Montgomery Securities
		Early Book Reviewers
			Stu Greenfield
			Harold Shattuck
			Douglass North
			Professor Manley Irwin
			Robert (Bob) and Kathie Maxfield
		Computer History Museum
			John Toole and John Hollar
			Chuck House
			Gardner Hendrie
			Marc Weber
		Interviewees
			Vint Cerf
			Robert Kahn
			Robert Metcalfe
			Jay Hill
			Louis Pouzin
			Bernard (Bernie) Strassburg
			Dan Lynch
			Joseph Carl Robnett (J.C.R., or “Lick”) Licklider
			Art Carr
			G. David Forney
			John Day
		My Co-authors:
			Andy Russell
			Loring G. Robbins
Introduction
	Three Themes
	Sources and Methods
	Market-Structures
	Three Market-Structures at the Intersections of Communications and Computing, 1968–1988
	Why Do These Stories Matter?
1 Prelude to Change: Data Communications, 1949–1968
	1.1 Overview
	1.2 AT&T, The Regulated Monopoly
		1.2.1 Hush-a-Phone
		1.2.2 Challenges to AT&T: MCI and Carterfone
	1.3 IBM
	1.4 New Technologies for Computing
		1.4.1 Transistors
		1.4.2 Integrated Circuits
		1.4.3 Modems
		1.4.4 Mainframes and Modems
			1.4.4.1 Time-sharing
			1.4.4.2 Minicomputers
	1.5 Venture Capital and Public Capital Markets
	1.6 The Early Entrepreneurs of Data Communications
		1.6.1 Codex
		1.6.2 Milgo
		1.6.3 Bernard Strassburg
	1.7 Emergence of the Data Communications Market-Structure
	1.8 In Perspective
2 Onset of Competition: Data Communications, 1968–1972
	2.1 Overview
	2.2 Government and AT&T
		2.2.1 Computer Inquiry I
		2.2.2 MCI and Carterfone
		2.2.3 William McGowan and MCI
	2.3 IBM and Computing
		2.3.1 Mainframe Computers and Time-Sharing
		2.3.2 Mainframe Market-Structure
		2.3.3 Unbundling Software and Services
		2.3.4 Minicomputers
	2.4 Early Data Communications Leaders: 1968–1969
		2.4.1 Codex
		2.4.2 Milgo
		2.4.3 Codex
		2.4.4 ADS
	2.5 A Swarm of Data Communications Start-ups: 1968–1970
		2.5.1 Infotron
		2.5.2 General DataComm
		2.5.3 Timeplex
		2.5.4 Paradyne
		2.5.5 Vadic
		2.5.6 Universal Data Systems
		2.5.7 Intertel
	2.6 1970: A Pivotal Year for Codex and ADS
		2.6.1 ADS
	2.7 The Creation of the IDCMA
	2.8 Strategic Partnerships in the Data Communications Market-Structure: 1971–1972
	2.9 Data Communications Market-Structure
		2.9.1 By 1972 the Data Communications Market-Structure had Emerged
	2.10 In Perspective
3 Packet Switching and ARPANET: Networking, 1959–1972
	3.1 Overview
	3.2 The Intergalactic Network
		3.2.1 How to Design a Data Network
		3.2.2 Paul Baran
		3.2.3 Donald Davies Davies—1965–19661
	3.3 ARPANET: The Planning Phase
	3.4 ARPANET: Design, Implementation, and Administration
		3.4.1 Subnet Design and Implementation
		3.4.2 Host-to-Host Software and the Network Working Group
	3.5 Uncertainty and the Emergence of a Dominant Design, 1969–1972
		3.5.1 Early Surprises
		3.5.2 Parallel Experiments in Hawaii and London
	3.6 ARPANET Meets the Public: ICCC Demonstration,
	3.7 In Perspective
4 Market Order: Data Communications, 1973–1979
	4.1 Overview
	4.2 Regulatory Challenges to IBM and AT&T
	4.3 Data Communications Market Leaders in the Early 1970s
		4.3.1 Codex: Modems, Multiplexers, and Competition, 1973–1976
		4.3.2 Milgo Defends Its Position
		4.3.3 ADS: Rebirth as Micom, 1973–1976
	4.4 The Swarm of Data Communications Firms, 1976–1979
		4.4.1 Infotron
		4.4.2 General DataComm
		4.4.3 Timeplex
		4.4.4 Paradyne
		4.4.5 Vadic
		4.4.6 Universal Data Systems
		4.4.7 Intertel
	4.5 Micom's Breakout Product, 1976–1979
	4.6 Market Leaders Are Acquired
	4.7 The Data Communications Market-Structure: Market Disruption
	4.8 In Perspective
5 Protocol Confusion: Networking, 1972–1979
	5.1 Overview
	5.2 Commercializing ARPANET, 1972–1975
	5.3 Packet Radio and Robert Kahn, 1972–1974
	5.4 The CYCLADES Network and Louis Pouzin, 1971–1972
	5.5 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), 1973–1976
	5.6 A Proliferation of Communication Projects
		5.6.1 Token Ring, David Farber, UC Irvine, and the NSF: 1969–1974
		5.6.2 Ethernet, Robert Metcalfe, and Xerox PARC, 1971–1975
		5.6.3 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1974–1977
		5.6.4 Metcalfe Joins the Systems Development Division of Xerox, 1975–1978
		5.6.5 Xerox Network System, 1977–1978
		5.6.6 TCP to TCP/IP, 1976–1979
		5.6.7 Open System Interconnection (OSI) 1975–1979
		5.6.8 National Bureau of Standards and MITRE, 1971–1979
			5.6.8.1 The 1979 Meetings: Resolution to the Confusion?
	5.7 In Perspective
6 Emergence of Local Area Networks: Networking, 1976–1981
	6.1 Overview
	6.2 Early Networking Pioneers
	6.3 Select Computer Companies Introduce LANs, 1976–1978
		6.3.1 Prime Computer
		6.3.2 MIT—The Laboratory of Computer Science
		6.3.3 Digital Equipment Corporation
		6.3.4 Zilog
		6.3.5 The Return of Venture Capital
	6.4 Early LAN Start-ups
		6.4.1 Robert Metcalfe and the Founding of 3Com
		6.4.2 Michael Pliner and the Founding of Sytek
		6.4.3 Ralph Ungermann, Charlie Bass, and the Founding of Ungermann-Bass
	6.5 Data Communications Companies Respond with the Data PBX
		6.5.1 Micom: The Data PBX and IPO
		6.5.2 Codex: The Data PBX, 1977–1981
	6.6 Early LAN Start-ups Struggle, 1980–1981
		6.6.1 Sytek: A Broadband Network and a Need for Cash
		6.6.2 Ungermann-Bass: Xerox, Broadband, and Chips
		6.6.3 3Com: Product Strategy in Anticipation of a PC
	6.7 The Emergence of the Networking Market-Structure
	6.8 In Perspective
7 The Chaos of Competition: Networking, 1981–1982
	7.1 Overview
	7.2 The Office of the Future, the PBX to CBX, and AT&T
		7.2.1 The IBM PC, 1981–1982
		7.2.2 IBM's Token Ring LAN, 1981–1982
	7.3 Early LAN Start-ups,
		7.3.1 3Com
		7.3.2 Ungermann-Bass
		7.3.3 Sytek
	7.4 Emerging LAN Competition,
		7.4.1 Interlan
		7.4.2 Bridge Communications
		7.4.3 Proteon
		7.4.4 Concord Data Systems
	7.5 The Data Communication Competitors, 1981–1982
		7.5.1 Micom
		7.5.2 Codex
		7.5.3 Other Data Communication Competitors
	7.6 A Second Wave of LAN Competition,
		7.6.1 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
		7.6.2 Excelan
		7.6.3 Communication Machinery Corporation
		7.6.4 General Electric
	7.7 The Settlement of the AT&T and IBM Antitrust Lawsuits
		7.7.1 The AT&T Settlement, January
	7.8 IBM Antitrust Suit
	7.9 Ethernet Chips, Boundless Hope and Market Confusion
	7.10 LAN Market-Structure, 1981–1982
	7.11 In Perspective
8 The Need for Standards: Networking, 1975–1984
	8.1 Overview
	8.2 IEEE Committee 802: The Battle for LAN Standards
	8.3 DIX
	8.4 IEEE Committee 802 and DIX
	8.5 Networking Strategy at Xerox: 1979–1981
	8.6 ISO/OSI (Open Systems Interconnection): 1979–1982
	8.7 The LAN and OSI Standards Efforts Meet
	8.8 The Emergence of a Dominant Design: 1983–1984
	8.9 In Perspective
9 Market Order: Networking, 1983–1986
	9.1 Overview
	9.2 The Established Powers
		9.2.1 Alex. Brown & Sons Conference, March
		9.2.2 AT&T: Computers and LANs
		9.2.3 IBM: CBXs and LANs—Does It Need Both?
		9.2.4 The Computer Companies
		9.2.5 Digital Equipment Corporation
	9.3 The Leading LAN start-ups, 1983–1986
		9.3.1 3Com
		9.3.2 Ungermann-Bass
		9.3.3 Sytek
	9.4 Other LAN start-ups
		9.4.1 Bridge Communications
		9.4.2 Interlan
		9.4.3 Concord Data Systems
		9.4.4 Proteon
		9.4.5 Excelan
		9.4.6 Communications Machinery Corporation, 1985–1986
		9.4.7 SynOptics Communications Inc.
	9.5 The Data Communication Competitors, 1983–1984
		9.5.1 Codex
		9.5.2 Micom
		9.5.3 Micom—Interlan
	9.6 New Data PBX Competitors
		9.6.1 Metapath
		9.6.2 Equinox
	9.7 LAN and Data Communications Market-Structures,1985–1986
	9.8 In Perspective
10 Adaptation of Wide Area Networks: Data Communications, 1979–1986
	10.1 Overview
	10.2 The Revolution of Digital Transmission, 1982–1984
		10.2.1 AT&T and the T1 Tariffs, 1982–1984
	10.3 The T1 Multiplexer
	10.4 The Beginnings of “Be Your Own Bell”
	10.5 Data Communications: First Signs of Digital Networks, 1982–1985
		10.5.1 General DataComm
		10.5.2 Timeplex
		10.5.3 Codex
		10.5.4 Micom
		10.5.5 Digital Communications Associates
		10.5.6 Other Data Communications Firms
		10.5.7 Tymnet and the Caravan Project,
	10.6 Entrepreneurs: The T1 Start-ups, 1982–1985
		10.6.1 Network Equipment Technologies
		10.6.2 Cohesive Networks
		10.6.3 Network Switching Systems
		10.6.4 Spectrum Digital
	10.7 Market Analysis: Samples of Expert Opinions, 1984–1987
		10.7.1 The Yankee Group
		10.7.2 Datapro Research
		10.7.3 Alex. Brown & Sons
		10.7.4 Salomon Brothers Inc.
		10.7.5 T1 Multiplexer OEM Relationships,
	10.8 Data Communications: Wide Area Networks, 1985–1988
		10.8.1 Digital Communications Associates
		10.8.2 Network Equipment Technologies
		10.8.3 Codex
		10.8.4 Micom
		10.8.5 Timeplex
		10.8.6 Other Data Communication Firms
		10.8.7 T1 Market-Structure
	10.9 In Perspective
11 Market Consolidation: Data Communications and Networking, 1986–1988
	11.1 Overview
	11.2 Data Communications: Firms Adapting or Dying? 1987–1988
		11.2.1 Codex
		11.2.2 Micom
		11.2.3 Network Equipment Technologies
	11.3 Other Data Communications Companies
		11.3.1 Digital Communications Associates
		11.3.2 Racal/Milgo
		11.3.3 Timeplex
		11.3.4 Paradyne
	11.4 Networking: Firms Responding to Market Consolidation, 1987–1988
		11.4.1 3Com
		11.4.2 Ungermann-Bass
		11.4.3 Concord Communications
	11.5 Other LAN Companies
		11.5.1 Excelan
		11.5.2 Sytek
		11.5.3 Communication Machinery Corporation
		11.5.4 SynOptics
		11.5.5 Proteon
		11.5.6 Digital Equipment Corporation
	11.6 Summary of the Data Communications Market-Structure
	11.7 Summary of the Networking Market-Structure
	11.8 In Perspective
12 Government Support for Internetworking, 1983–1988
	12.1 Overview
	12.2 TCP/IP Internet
		12.2.1 DARPA Continues Its Commitment, 1980–1983
		12.2.2 US Federal Agencies Lend Support to TCP/IP
	12.3 OSI's Champions in US Federal Agencies
		12.3.1 National Bureau of Standards
		12.3.2 OSINET, a Sandbox for Interoperability
		12.3.3 Government Support for OSI Implementations
	12.4 In Perspective
13 The Emergence of Internetworking, 1985–1988
	13.1 Overview
	13.2 Interconnecting Local Area Networks
		13.2.1 Repeaters and Hubs: Physical Layer Solutions for Extending a Network
		13.2.2 Bridges: Connecting the Data Link Layer
		13.2.3 Gateways and Routers: Integrating Countless Networks at the Network Layer
	13.3 Internetworking: Entrepreneurs and Start-ups, 1985–1988
		13.3.1 Hub Companies
		13.3.2 Vitalink Communications Corporation
		13.3.3 Retix
		13.3.4 Wellfleet Communications
		13.3.5 Cisco Systems
	13.4 Internetworking: Public Demonstrations in
		13.4.1 Enterprise Networking Event
		13.4.2 Interop
	13.5 Internetworking Market-Structure
	13.6 In Perspective
14 Conclusions
	14.1 Summary of Market-Structures, 1968–1988
	14.2 Internetworking, 1988–2020
	14.3 Three Themes
	14.4 Final Thoughts
A List of Interviews
B Bibliography
	Selected Data and Source Material
	Selected References
C Timeline
Author Biographies
Index