Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change, 9th Edition
- Length: 1264 pages
- Edition: 9
- Language: English
- Publisher: McGraw-Hill Education
- Publication Date: 2020-01-03
- ISBN-10: 1260240215
- ISBN-13: 9781260240214
- Sales Rank: #465719 (See Top 100 Books)
Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change by MartinSilberberg and Patricia Amateis has been recognized in the general chemistrymarket as an unparalleled classic. The revision for the ninth edition focusedon continued optimization of the text. To aid in this process, we wereable to use data from literally thousands of student responses to questions inLearnSmart, the adaptive learning system that assesses student knowledge ofcourse content. The data, such as average time spent answering eachquestion and the percentage of students who correctly answered the question onthe first attempt, revealed the learning objectives that students foundparticularly difficult, which we addressed by revising surrounding text oradding additional learning resources such as videos and slideshows. The textstill contains unprecedented macroscopic-to-microscopic molecularillustrations, consistent step-by-step worked exercises in every chapter, andan extensive range of end-of-chapter problems, which provide engagingapplications covering a wide variety of interests, including engineering,medicine, materials, and environmental studies. Changes have been made to thetext and applications throughout to make them more succinct, to the artwork tomake it more teachable and modern, and to the design to make it more simplisticand open.
Cover
Periodic Table of the Elements
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Brief Contents
Detailed Contents
List of Sample Problems
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1 | Keys to Studying Chemistry: Definitions, Units, and Problem Solving 2
1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions 3
The States of Matter 4
The Properties of Matter and Its Changes
The Central Theme in Chemistry 8
The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter 8
1.2 The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model 10
1.3 Measurement and Chemical Problem Solving 12
General Features of SI Units 12
Some Important SI Units in Chemistry 13
Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations 15
A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems 18
Temperature Scales 23
Extensive and Intensive Properties 25
1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement: Significant Figures 26
Determining Which Digits Are Significant 27
Significant Figures: Calculations and Rounding Off 28
Precision, Accuracy, and Instrument Calibration 30
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 31
PROBLEMS 35
Chapter 2 | The Components of Matter
2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview 42
2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter 44
Mass Conservation 44
Definite Composition 45
Multiple Proportions 47
2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 48
Postulates of the Atomic Theory 48
How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws 48
2.4 The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model 50
Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties 50
Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 52
2.5 The Atomic Theory Today 53
Structure of the Atom 53
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol 54
Isotopes 55
Atomic Masses of the Elements 55
2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table 59
2.7 Compounds: Introduction to Bonding 62
The Formation of Ionic Compounds 62
The Formation of Covalent Substances 64
2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 65
Binary Ionic Compounds 65
Compounds That Contain Polyatomic Ions 69
Acid Names from Anion Names 71
Binary Covalent Compounds 72
The Simplest Organic Compounds: Straight-Chain Alkanes 73
Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas 74
Representing Molecules with Formulas and Models 76
2.9 Mixtures: Classification and Separation 78
An Overview of the Components of Matter 79
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 81
PROBLEMS 83
Chapter 3 | Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 92
3.1 The Mole 93
Defining the Mole 93
Determining Molar Mass 94
Converting Between Amount, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities 95
The Importance of Mass Percent 99
3.2 Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound 102
Empirical Formulas 102
Molecular Formulas 103
Chemical Formulas and Molecular Structures; Isomers 107
3.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 108
3.4 Calculating Quantities of Reactant and Product 113
Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar Ratios from the Balanced Equation 113
Reactions That Occur in a Sequence 117
Reactions That Involve a Limiting Reactant 118
Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Reaction Yields 124
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 127
PROBLEMS 132
Chapter 4 | Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 142
4.1 Solution Concentration and the Role of Water as a Solvent 143
The Polar Nature of Water 144
Ionic Compounds in Water 144
Covalent Compounds in Water 148
Expressing Concentration in Terms of Molarity 148
Amount-Mass-Number Conversions Involving Solutions 149
Preparing and Diluting Molar Solutions 150
4.2 Precipitation Reactions 154
The Key Event: Formation of a Solid from Dissolved Ions 154
Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form 156
Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions 159
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions 162
The Key Event: Formation of H2O from H+ and OH− 165
Proton Transfer in Acid-Base Reactions 165
Stoichiometry of Acid-Base Reactions: Acid-Base Titrations 169
4.4 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions 172
The Key Event: Movement of Electrons Between Reactants 172
Some Essential Redox Terminology 173
Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor Electron Charge 173
Stoichiometry of Redox Reactions: Redox Titrations 177
4.5 Elements in Redox Reactions 179
Combination Redox Reactions 179
Decomposition Redox Reactions 180
Displacement Redox Reactions and Activity Series 182
Combustion Reactions 184
4.6 The Reversibility of Reactions and the Equilibrium State 186
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 188
PROBLEMS 194
Chapter 5 | Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 202
5.1 An Overview of the Physical States of Matter 203
5.2 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 205
Measuring Gas Pressure: Barometers and Manometers 205
Units of Pressure 207
5.3 The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations 28
The Relationship Between Volume and Pressure: Boyle’s Law 209
The Relationship Between Volume and Temperature: Charles’s Law 210
The Relationship Between Volume and Amount: Avogadro’s Law 212
Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions 213
The Ideal Gas Law 214
Solving Gas Law Problems 215
5.4 Rearrangements of the Ideal Gas Law 220
The Density of a Gas 220
The Molar Mass of a Gas 222
The Partial Pressure of Each Gas in a Mixture of Gases 223
The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction Stoichiometry 226
5.5 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model for Gas Behavior 229
How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws 229
Effusion and Diffusion 234
The Chaotic World of Gases: Mean Free Path and Collision Frequency 236
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE:
HOW THE GAS LAWS APPLY TO EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 237
5.6 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior 239
Effects of Extreme Conditions on Gas Behavior 239
The van der Waals Equation: Adjusting the Ideal Gas Law 241
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 242
PROBLEMS 245
Chapter 6 | Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 254
6.1 Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion 255
Defining the System and Its Surroundings 256
Energy Change (ΔE): Energy Transfer to or from a System 256
Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy Transfer 257
The Law of Energy Conservation 259
Units of Energy 260
State Functions and the Path Independence of the Energy Change 261
Calculating Pressure-Volume Work (PV Work) 262
6.2 Enthalpy: Changes at Constant Pressure 263
The Meaning of Enthalpy 263
Comparing ΔE and ΔH 264
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 264
6.3 Calorimetry: Measuring the Heat of a Chemical or Physical Change 266
Specific Heat Capacity 266
The Two Major Types of Calorimetry 268
6.4 Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations 272
6.5 Hess’s Law: Finding ΔH of Any Reaction 274
6.6 Standard Enthalpies of Reaction (ΔHrxn∘) 276
Formation Equations and Their Standard Enthalpy Changes 277
Determining ΔHrxn∘ from ΔHf∘ Values for Reactants and Products 278
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE:
THE FUTURE OF ENERGY USE 280
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 284
PROBLEMS 287
Chapter 7 | Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 294
7.1 The Nature of Light 295
The Wave Nature of Light 296
The Particle Nature of Light 299
7.2 Atomic Spectra 302
Line Spectra and the Rydberg Equation 302
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 303
The Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom 305
TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY:
SPECTROMETRY IN CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 308
7.3 The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter and Energy 310
The Wave Nature of Electrons and the Particle Nature of Photons 310
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 313
7.4 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom 314
The Atomic Orbital and the Probable Location of the Electron 314
Quantum Numbers of an Atomic Orbital 316
Quantum Numbers and Energy Levels 317
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 319
The Special Case of Energy Levels in the Hydrogen Atom 322
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 323
PROBLEMS 325
Chapter 8 | Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 330
8.1 Characteristics of Many-Electron Atoms 332
The Electron-Spin Quantum Number 332
The Exclusion Principle 333
Electrostatic Effects and Energy-Level Splitting 333
8.2 The Quantum-Mechanical Model and the Periodic Table 335
Building Up Period 1 336
Building Up Period 2 336
Building Up Period 3 338
Building Up Period 4: The First Transition Series 338
General Principles of Electron Configurations 340
Intervening Series: Transition and Inner Transition Elements 341
Similar Electron Configurations Within Groups 342
8.3 Trends in Three Atomic Properties 344
Trends in Atomic Size 345
Trends in Ionization Energy 347
Trends in Electron Affinity 351
8.4 Atomic Properties and Chemical Reactivity 352
Trends in Metallic Behavior 352
Properties of Monatomic Ions 354
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 361
PROBLEMS 362
Chapter 9 | Models of Chemical Bonding 368
9.1 Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds 369
The Three Ways Elements Combine 369
Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule 371
9.2 The Ionic Bonding Model 372
Why Ionic Compounds Form: The Importance of Lattice Energy 373
Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy 376
How the Model Explains the Properties of Ionic Compounds 378
9.3 The Covalent Bonding Model 379
The Formation of a Covalent Bond 379
Bonding Pairs and Lone Pairs 380
Properties of a Covalent Bond: Order, Energy, and Length 380
How the Model Explains the Properties of Covalent Substances 383
TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY:
INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY 384
9.4 Bond Energy and Chemical Change 385
Changes in Bond Energy: Where Does ΔHrxn∘ Come From? 385
Using Bond Energies to Calculate ΔHrxn∘ Bond Strengths and the Heat Released from Fuels and Foods 389
9.5 Between the Extremes: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 390
Electronegativity 390
Bond Polarity and Partial Ionic Character 392
The Gradation in Bonding Across a Period 394
9.6 An Introduction to Metallic Bonding 395
The Electron-Sea Model 395
How the Model Explains the Properties of Metals 396
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 397
PROBLEMS 399
Chapter 10 | The Shapes of Molecules 404
10.1 Depicting Molecules and Ions with Lewis Structures 405
Applying the Octet Rule to Write Lewis Structures 405
Resonance: Delocalized Electron-Pair Bonding 410
Formal Charge: Selecting the More Important Resonance Structure 411
Lewis Structures for Exceptions to the Octet Rule 414
10.2 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory 418
Electron-Group Arrangements and Molecular Shapes 418
The Molecular Shape with Two Electron Groups (Linear Arrangement) 419
Molecular Shapes with Three Electron Groups (Trigonal Planar Arrangement) 420
Molecular Shapes with Four Electron Groups (Tetrahedral Arrangement) 421
Molecular Shapes with Five Electron Groups (Trigonal Bipyramidal Arrangement) 422
Molecular Shapes with Six Electron Groups (Octahedral Arrangement) 423
Using VSEPR Theory to Determine Molecular Shape 424
Molecular Shapes with More Than One Central Atom 427
10.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity 429
Bond Polarity, Bond Angle, and Dipole Moment 429
The Effect of Molecular Polarity on Behavior 431
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY:
MOLECULAR SHAPE, BIOLOGICAL RECEPTORS, AND THE SENSE OF SMELL 432
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 433
PROBLEMS 437
Chapter 11 | Theories of Covalent Bonding 442
11.1 Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Orbital Hybridization 443
The Central Themes of VB Theory 443
Types of Hybrid Orbitals 444
11.2 Modes of Orbital Overlap and the Types of Covalent Bonds 452
Orbital Overlap in Single and Multiple Bonds 452
Orbital Overlap and Rotation Within a Molecule 455
11.3 Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory and Electron Delocalization 455
The Central Themes of MO Theory 456
Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of Period 2 Elements 458
Two Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules: HF and NO 462
Two Polyatomic Molecules: Benzene and Ozone 463
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 464
PROBLEMS 466
Chapter 12 | Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 470
12.1 An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes 471
A Kinetic-Molecular View of the Three States 472
Types of Phase Changes and Their Enthalpies 473
12.2 Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes 475
Heat Involved in Phase Changes 475
The Equilibrium Nature of Phase Changes 479
Phase Diagrams: Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Physical State 483
12.3 Types of Intermolecular Forces 485
How Close Can Molecules Approach Each Other? 485
Ion-Dipole Forces 486
Dipole-Dipole Forces 487
The Hydrogen Bond 487
Polarizability and Induced Dipole Forces 489
Dispersion (London) Forces 490
12.4 Properties of the Liquid State 492
Surface Tension 492
Capillarity 493
Viscosity 494
12.5 The Uniqueness of Water 495
Solvent Properties of Water 495
Thermal Properties of Water 495
Surface Properties of Water 496
The Unusual Density of Solid Water 496
12.6 The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding 497
Structural Features of Solids 497
TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY:
DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS AND SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPY 504
Types and Properties of Crystalline Solids 505
Amorphous Solids 508
Bonding in Solids: Molecular Orbital Band Theory 509
12.7 Advanced Materials 511
Electronic Materials 511
Liquid Crystals 513
Ceramic Materials 515
Polymeric Materials 517
Nanotechnology: Designing Materials Atom by Atom 522
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 524
PROBLEMS 527
Chapter 13 | The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids 534
13.1 Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces and Solubility 535
Intermolecular Forces in Solution 536
Liquid Solutions and the Role of Molecular Polarity 537
Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions 539
13.2 Intermolecular Forces and Biological Macromolecules 541
The Structures of Proteins 541
Dual Polarity in Soaps, Membranes, and Antibiotics 543
The Structure of DNA 544
13.3 Why Substances Dissolve: Breaking Down the Solution Process 546
The Heat of Solution and Its Components 546
The Heat of Hydration: Dissolving Ionic Solids in Water 547
The Solution Process and the Change in Entropy 550
13.4 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process 552
Effect of Temperature on Solubility 552
Effect of Pressure on Solubility 553
13.5 Concentration Terms 555
Molarity and Molality 555
Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution 557
Interconverting Concentration Terms 559
13.6 Colligative Properties of Solutions 560
Nonvolatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 561
Using Colligative Properties to Find Solute Molar Mass 566
Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 567
Strong Electrolyte Solutions 567
Applications of Colligative Properties 570
13.7 The Structure and Properties of Colloids 571
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:
SOLUTIONS AND COLLOIDS IN WATER PURIFICATION 573
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 575
PROBLEMS 579
Chapter 14 | Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements 588
14.1 Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom 589
Where Hydrogen Fits in the Periodic Table 589
Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry 590
14.2 Trends Across the Periodic Table: The Period 2 Elements 591
14.3 Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals 594
Why the Alkali Metals Are Unusual Physically 594
Why the Alkali Metals Are So Reactive 596
14.4 Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth Metals 597
How the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals Compare Physically 597
How the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals Compare Chemically 597
Diagonal Relationships: Lithium and Magnesium 599
14.5 Group 3A(13): The Boron Family 599
How the Transition Elements Influence This Group’s Properties 599
Features That First Appear in This Group’s Chemical Properties 601
Highlights of Boron Chemistry 601
Diagonal Relationships: Beryllium and Aluminum 602
14.6 Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family 602
How Type of Bonding Affects Physical Properties 604
How Bonding Changes in This Group’s Compounds 605
Highlights of Carbon Chemistry 606
Highlights of Silicon Chemistry 607
Diagonal Relationships: Boron and Silicon 608
14.7 Group 5A(15): The Nitrogen Family 608
The Wide Range of Physical Behavior 610
Patterns in Chemical Behavior 610
Highlights of Nitrogen Chemistry 612
Highlights of Phosphorus Chemistry 614
14.8 Group 6A(16): The Oxygen Family 616
How the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Physically 616
How the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Chemically 618
Highlights of Oxygen Chemistry: Range of Oxide Properties 619
Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry 619
14.9 Group 7A(17): The Halogens 621
Physical Behavior of the Halogens 621
Why the Halogens Are So Reactive 621
Highlights of Halogen Chemistry 623
14.10 Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases 626
How the Noble Gases and Alkali Metals Contrast Physically 626
How Noble Gases Can Form Compounds 626
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 628
PROBLEMS 629
Chapter 15 | Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 636
15.1 The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of Organic Molecules 637
The Structural Complexity of Organic Molecules 638
The Chemical Diversity of Organic Molecules 638
15.2 The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons 640
Carbon Skeletons and Hydrogen Skins 640
Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Only Single Bonds 643
Dispersion Forces and the Physical Properties of Alkanes 645
Constitutional Isomerism 645
Chiral Molecules and Optical Isomerism 646
Alkenes: Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds 648
Restricted Rotation and Geometric (cis-trans) Isomerism 649
Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds 650
Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Cyclic Molecules with Delocalized π Electrons 651
Variations on a Theme: Catenated Inorganic Hydrides 652
TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY:
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR) SPECTROSCOPY 653
15.3 Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions 655
Types of Organic Reactions 655
The Redox Process in Organic Reactions 657
15.4 Properties and Reactivities of Common Functional Groups 658
Functional Groups with Only Single Bonds 658
Functional Groups with Double Bonds 663
Functional Groups with Both Single and Double Bonds 666
Functional Groups with Triple Bonds 670
15.5 The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: Synthetic Macromolecules 672
Addition Polymers 672
Condensation Polymers 673
15.6 The Monomer-Polymer Theme II: Biological Macromolecules 674
Sugars and Polysaccharides 674
Amino Acids and Proteins 676
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids 678
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO GENETICS AND FORENSICS:
DNA SEQUENCING AND FINGERPRINTING 683
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 685
PROBLEMS 687
Chapter 16 | Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 694
16.1 Focusing on Reaction Rate 695
16.2 Expressing the Reaction Rate 698
Average, Instantaneous, and Initial Reaction Rates 698
Expressing Rate in Terms of Reactant and Product Concentrations 700
16.3 The Rate Law and Its Components 702
Some Laboratory Methods for Determining the Initial Rate 703
Determining Reaction Orders 703
Determining the Rate Constant 708
16.4 Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration Changes over Time 712
Integrated Rate Laws and Reaction Half-Life for First-Order Reactions 712
Integrated Rate Law and Reaction Half-Life for Second-Order Reactions 716
Integrated Rate Law and Reaction Half-Life for Zero-Order Reactions 718
Determining Reaction Orders from an Integrated Rate Law 718
16.5 Theories of Chemical Kinetics 720
Collision Theory: Basis of the Rate Law 720
Transition State Theory: What the Activation Energy Is Used For 722
The Effect of Temperature on Rate 724
16.6 Reaction Mechanisms: The Steps from Reactant to Product 727
Elementary Reactions and Molecularity 727
The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction Mechanism 728
Correlating the Mechanism with the Rate Law 729
16.7 Catalysis: Speeding Up a Reaction 733
The Basis of Catalytic Action 733
Homogeneous Catalysis 734
Heterogeneous Catalysis 735
Kinetics and Function of Biological Catalysts 736
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE:
DEPLETION OF EARTH’S OZONE LAYER 738
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 739
PROBLEMS 743
Chapter 17 | Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 752
17.1 The Equilibrium State and the Equilibrium Constant 753
17.2 The Reaction Quotient and the Equilibrium Constant 756
The Changing Value of the Reaction Quotient 756
Writing the Reaction Quotient in Its Various Forms 757
17.3 Expressing Equilibria with Pressure Terms: Relation Between Kc and Kp 763
17.4 Comparing Q and K to Determine Reaction Direction 764
17.5 How to Solve Equilibrium Problems 767
Using Quantities to Find the Equilibrium Constant 767
Using the Equilibrium Constant to Find Quantities 770
PROBLEMS Involving Mixtures of Reactants and Products 775
17.6 Reaction Conditions and Equilibrium: Le Châtelier’s Principle 777
The Effect of a Change in Concentration 777
The Effect of a Change in Pressure (Volume) 780
The Effect of a Change in Temperature 782
The Lack of Effect of a Catalyst 785
Applying Le Châtelier’s Principle to the Synthesis of Ammonia 787
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO CELLULAR METABOLISM:
DESIGN AND CONTROL OF A METABOLIC PATHWAY 788
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 790
PROBLEMS 793
Chapter 18 | Acid-Base Equilibria 802
18.1 Release of H+ or H− and the Arrhenius Acid-Base Definition 804
18.2 Proton Transfer and the Brønsted- Lowry Acid-Base Definition 805
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 806
Relative Acid-Base Strength and the Net Direction of Reaction 807
18.3 Autoionization of Water and the pH Scale 809
The Equilibrium Nature of Autoionization: The Ion-Product Constant for Water (Kw) 810
Expressing the Hydronium Ion Concentration: The pH Scale 811
18.4 Strong Acids and Bases and pH Calculations 813
Strong Acids 813
Strong Bases 814
Calculating pH for Strong Acids and Bases 814
18.5 Weak Acids and Their Equilibria Calculations 815
The Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka) 815
Finding Ka, Given Concentrations 818
Finding Concentrations, Given Ka 819
The Effect of Concentration on the Extent of Acid Dissociation 821
The Behavior of Polyprotic Acids 822
18.6 Molecular Properties and Acid Strength 825
Acid Strength of Nonmetal Hydrides 825
Acid Strength of Oxoacids 825
Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions 826
18.7 Weak Bases and Their Relation to Weak Acids 827
Molecules as Weak Bases: Ammonia and the Amines 828
Anions of Weak Acids as Weak Bases 830
The Relation Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 830
18.8 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions 833
Salts That Yield Neutral Solutions 833
Salts That Yield Acidic Solutions 833
Salts That Yield Basic Solutions 834
Salts of Weakly Acidic Cations and Weakly Basic Anions 835
Salts of Amphiprotic Anions 835
18.9 Generalizing the Brønsted-Lowry Concept: The Leveling Effect 837
18.10 Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis Acid-Base Definition 838
Molecules as Lewis Acids 838
Metal Cations as Lewis Acids 839
An Overview of Acid-Base Definitions 840
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 841
PROBLEMS 844
Chapter 19 | Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 852
19.1 Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffers 853
What a Buffer Is and How It Works: The Common-Ion Effect 853
The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation 858
Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range 859
Preparing a Buffer 861
19.2 Acid-Base Titration Curves 863
Strong Acid–Strong Base Titration Curves 863
Weak Acid–Strong Base Titration Curves 866
Weak Base–Strong Acid Titration Curves 870
Monitoring pH with Acid-Base Indicators 872
Titration Curves for Polyprotic Acids 874
Amino Acids as Biological Polyprotic Acids 875
19.3 Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds 876
The Ion-Product Expression (Qsp) and the Solubility-Product Constant (Ksp) 876
Calculations Involving the Solubility-Product Constant 877
Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility 880
Effect of pH on Solubility 882
Applying Ionic Equilibria to the Formation of a Limestone Cave 883
Predicting the Formation of a Precipitate: Qsp vs. Ksp 884
Separating Ions by Selective Precipitation and Simultaneous Equilibria 886
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE:
THE ACID-RAIN PROBLEM 888
19.4 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 890
Formation of Complex Ions 890
Complex Ions and the Solubility of Precipitates 891
Complex Ions of Amphoteric Hydroxides 893
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 895
PROBLEMS 899
Chapter 20 | Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and Reaction Direction 906
20.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Predicting Spontaneous Change 907
The First Law of Thermodynamics Does Not Predict Spontaneous Change 908
The Sign of ΔH Does Not Predict Spontaneous Change 908
Freedom of Particle Motion and Dispersal of Kinetic Energy 909
Entropy and the Number of Microstates 910
Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 913
Standard Molar Entropies and the Third Law 913
Predicting Relative S° of a System 914
20.2 Calculating the Change in Entropy of a Reaction 918
Entropy Changes in the System: Standard Entropy of Reaction (ΔSrxn∘) 918
Entropy Changes in the Surroundings: The Other Part of the Total 920
The Entropy Change and the Equilibrium State 922
Spontaneous Exothermic and Endothermic Changes 923
20.3 Entropy, Free Energy, and Work 924
Free Energy Change and Reaction Spontaneity 924
Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes 925
The Free Energy Change and the Work a System Can Do 927
The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Spontaneity 928
Coupling of Reactions to Drive a Nonspontaneous Change 932
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO BIOLOGICAL ENERGETICS:
THE UNIVERSAL ROLE OF ATP 933
20.4 Free Energy, Equilibrium, and Reaction Direction 934
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 940
PROBLEMS 943
Chapter 21 | Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 950
21.1 Redox Reactions and Electrochemical Cells 951
A Quick Review of Oxidation-Reduction Concepts 951
Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox Reactions 952
An Overview of Electrochemical Cells 955
21.2 Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous Reactions to Generate Electrical Energy 957
Construction and Operation of a Voltaic Cell 957
Notation for a Voltaic Cell 960
Why Does a Voltaic Cell Work? 961
21.3 Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic Cell 962
Standard Cell Potential (Ecell∘) 962
Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 965
Using Ehalf-cell∘ Values to Write Spontaneous Redox Reactions 967
Explaining the Activity Series of the Metals 970
21.4 Free Energy and Electrical Work 971
Standard Cell Potential and the Equilibrium Constant 971
The Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential 974
Following Changes in Potential During Cell Operation 975
Concentration Cells 976
21.5 Electrochemical Processes in Batteries 980
Primary (Nonrechargeable) Batteries 980
Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries 981
Fuel Cells 982
21.6 Corrosion: An Environmental Voltaic Cell 984
The Corrosion of Iron 984
Protecting Against the Corrosion of Iron 985
21.7 Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical Energy to Drive Nonspontaneous Reactions 986
Construction and Operation of an Electrolytic Cell 988
Predicting the Products of Electrolysis 992
Stoichiometry of Electrolysis: The Relation Between Amounts of Charge and Products 992
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO BIOLOGICAL ENERGETICS:
CELLULAR ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND THE PRODUCTION OF ATP 994
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 996
PROBLEMS 999
Chapter 22 | The Elements in Nature and Industry 1008
22.1 How the Elements Occur in Nature 1009
Earth’s Structure and the Abundance of the Elements 1009
Sources of the Elements 1013
22.2 The Cycling of Elements Through the Environment 1014
The Carbon Cycle 1014
The Nitrogen Cycle 1016
The Phosphorus Cycle 1017
22.3 Metallurgy: Extracting a Metal from Its Ore 1020
Pretreating the Ore 1021
Converting Mineral to Element 1022
Refining and Alloying the Element 1024
22.4 Tapping the Crust: Isolation and Uses of Selected Elements 1026
Producing the Alkali Metals: Sodium and Potassium 1026
The Indispensable Three: Iron, Copper, and Aluminum 1027
Mining the Sea for Magnesium 1033
The Sources and Uses of Hydrogen 1034
22.5 Chemical Manufacturing: Two Case Studies 1037
Sulfuric Acid, the Most Important Chemical 1037
The Chlor-Alkali Process 1040
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 1041
PROBLEMS 1042
Chapter 23 | Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds 1048
23.1 Properties of the Transition Elements 1049
Electron Configurations of the Transition Metals and Their Ions 1050
Atomic and Physical Properties of the Transition Elements 1052
Chemical Properties of the Transition Elements 1054
23.2 The Inner Transition Elements 1056
The Lanthanides 1056
The Actinides 1057
23.3 Coordination Compounds 1058
Complex Ions: Coordination Numbers, Geometries, and Ligands 1058
Formulas and Names of Coordination Compounds 1060
Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 1064
23.4 Theoretical Basis for the Bonding and Properties of Complex Ions 1067
Applying Valence Bond Theory to Complex Ions 1067
Crystal Field Theory 1069
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO NUTRITIONAL SCIENCE:
TRANSITION METALS AS ESSENTIAL DIETARY TRACE ELEMENTS 1076
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 1078
PROBLEMS 1080
Chapter 24 | Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications 1086
24.1 Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Stability 1087
Comparing Chemical and Nuclear Change 1088
The Components of the Nucleus: Terms and Notation 1088
The Discovery of Radioactivity and the Types of Emissions 1089
Modes of Radioactive Decay; Balancing Nuclear Equations 1089
Nuclear Stability and the Mode of Decay 1093
24.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 1097
Detection and Measurement of Radioactivity 1097
The Rate of Radioactive Decay 1098
Radioisotopic Dating 1102
24.3 Nuclear Transmutation: Induced Changes in Nuclei 1104
Early Transmutation Experiments; Nuclear Shorthand Notation 1104
Particle Accelerators and the Transuranium Elements 1105
24.4 Ionization: Effects of Nuclear Radiation on Matter 1107
Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Living Tissue 1108
Background Sources of Ionizing Radiation 1110
Assessing the Risk from Ionizing Radiation 1111
24.5 Applications of Radioisotopes 1112
Radioactive Tracers 1112
Additional Applications of Ionizing Radiation 1114
24.6 The Interconversion of Mass and Energy 1115
The Mass Difference Between a Nucleus and Its Nucleons 1116
Nuclear Binding Energy and Binding Energy per Nucleon 1117
24.7 Applications of Fission and Fusion 1119
The Process of Nuclear Fission 1119
The Promise of Nuclear Fusion 1123
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO COSMOLOGY:
ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE STARS 1124
CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 1126
PROBLEMS 1129
Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A-1
Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances A-5
Appendix C Equilibrium Constants for Selected Substances A-8
Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials A-14
Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems A-15
Glossary G-1
Index I-1Donate to keep this site alive
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Introduction to Nuclear Science
2023-05-31