Building Electro-Optical Systems: Making It All Work, 3rd Edition
- Length: 832 pages
- Edition: 3
- Language: English
- Publisher: Wiley
- Publication Date: 2022-01-26
- ISBN-10: 1119438977
- ISBN-13: 9781119438977
- Sales Rank: #1941034 (See Top 100 Books)
Building Electro-Optical Systems
In the newly revised third edition of Building Electro-Optical Systems: Making It All Work, renowned Dr. Philip C. D. Hobbs delivers a birds-eye view of all the topics you’ll need to understand for successful optical instrument design and construction. The author draws on his own work as an applied physicist and consultant with over a decade of experience in designing and constructing electro-optical systems from beginning to end.
The book’s topics are chosen to allow readers in a variety of disciplines and fields to quickly and confidently decide whether a given device or technique is appropriate for their needs. Using accessible prose and intuitive organization, Building Electro-Optical Systems remains one of the most practical and solution-oriented resources available to graduate students and professionals.
The newest edition includes comprehensive revisions that reflect progress in the field of electro-optical instrument design and construction since the second edition was published. It also offers approximately 350 illustrations for visually oriented learners. Readers will also enjoy:
- A thorough introduction to basic optical calculations, including wave propagation, detection, coherent detection, and interferometers
- Practical discussions of sources and illuminators, including radiometry, continuum sources, incoherent line sources, lasers, laser noise, and diode laser coherence control
- Explorations of optical detection, including photodetection in semiconductors and signal-to-noise ratios
- Full treatments of lenses, prisms, and mirrors, as well as coatings, filters, and surface finishes, and polarization
Perfect for graduate students in physics, electrical engineering, optics, and optical engineering, Building Electro-Optical Systems is also an ideal resource for professional designers working in optics, electro-optics, analog electronics, and photonics.
Cover Title Page Copyright Contents Preface Acknowledgments Chapter 1 Basic Optical Calculations 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Wave Propagation 1.2.1 Maxwell's Equations and Plane Waves 1.2.2 Plane Waves in Material Media 1.2.3 Phase Matching 1.2.4 Refraction, Snell's Law, and the Fresnel Coefficients 1.2.5 Brewster's Angle 1.2.6 Total Internal Reflection 1.2.7 Goos–Hänchen Shift 1.2.8 Circular and Elliptical Polarization 1.2.9 Optical Loss 1.3 Calculating Wave Propagation in Real Life 1.3.1 Scalar Optics 1.3.2 Paraxial Propagation 1.3.3 Gaussian Beams 1.3.4 The Debye Approximation, Fresnel Zones, and The Fresnel Number 1.3.5 Ray Optics 1.3.6 Lenses 1.3.7 Aperture, Field Angle, and Stops 1.3.8 Fourier Transform Relations 1.3.9 Fourier Imaging 1.3.10 The Pupil 1.3.11 Pupil Problems 1.3.12 Connecting Wave and Ray Optics: ABCD Matrices 1.3.13 Extended ABCD Matrices 1.3.14 ABCD Matrices and Wave Optics 1.3.15 Source Angular Distribution: Isotropic and Lambertian Sources 1.3.16 Solid Angle 1.3.17 Étendue: How Much Light Can I Get? 1.3.18 What Is “Resolution”? 1.4 Detection 1.5 Coherent Detection 1.5.1 Interference 1.5.2 Coherent Detection and Shot Noise: The Rule of One 1.5.3 Spatial Selectivity of Coherent Detection 1.5.4 Optical Modes, Antennas, and Thermodynamics 1.6 Interferometers 1.6.1 Two‐Beam Interferometers 1.6.2 Multiple‐Beam Interferometers: Fabry–Perots 1.6.3 Focused‐Beam Resonators 1.7 Photon Budgets and Operating Specifications 1.7.1 Basis 1.8 Signal Processing Strategy 1.8.1 Analog Signal Processing 1.8.2 Back‐End Processing Strategy 1.8.3 Putting It All Together Chapter 2 Sources And Illuminators 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Spectrum 2.2.1 Visible Light 2.2.2 Ultraviolet 2.2.3 Infrared 2.3 Radiometry 2.4 Continuum Sources 2.4.1 Black Body Radiators 2.4.2 Radiance Conservation and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 2.4.3 Tungsten Bulbs 2.4.4 Glow Bulbs and Globars 2.5 Interlude: Coherence 2.5.1 Speckle 2.5.2 Imaging Calculations with Partially Coherent Light 2.5.3 Gotcha: Coherence Fluctuations at Finite Bandwidth 2.5.4 Measuring Laser Noise in Practice 2.5.5 Gotcha: Aerosol Particles and Laser Noise 2.6 More Sources 2.6.1 LEDs 2.6.1.1 LED Noise 2.6.2 Superluminescent Diodes 2.6.3 Other Amplified Spontaneous Emission (ASE) Devices 2.6.4 High‐Pressure Arc Lamps 2.6.5 Flashlamps 2.6.6 Spark and Avalanche Sources 2.7 Incoherent Line Sources 2.7.1 Low‐Pressure Discharges 2.8 Using Low‐Coherence Sources: Condensers 2.8.1 Radiometry of Imaging Systems 2.8.2 The Condenser Problem 2.9 Lasers 2.9.1 Mode Structure 2.9.2 Schawlow–Townes Line width 2.9.3 Relaxation Oscillation 2.10 Gas Lasers 2.11 Solid‐State Lasers 2.11.1 Modelocked Lasers, Parametric Oscillators, and Other Exotica 2.12 Diode Lasers 2.12.1 Visible Diode Lasers 2.12.2 Distributed Feedback and Distributed Bragg Reflector 2.12.3 Tuning Properties 2.12.4 Mode Jumps 2.12.5 Regions of Stability 2.12.6 Temperature Behavior 2.12.7 Diode Laser Life 2.12.8 Checking the Mode Structure 2.12.9 Vertical‐Cavity Surface‐Emitting Lasers 2.12.10 Better‐Behaved VCSELS 2.12.11 Modulation Behavior 2.12.12 ESD Sensitivity 2.12.13 Difficulty in Collimating 2.12.14 Other Diode Laser Foibles 2.13 Laser Noise 2.13.1 Intensity Noise 2.13.2 Frequency Noise 2.13.3 Mode Hopping 2.13.4 Gotcha: Mode Jumps in Multimode Diodes 2.13.5 Mode‐Partition Noise 2.13.6 Gotcha: Surface Near a Focus 2.13.7 Pulling 2.13.8 Self‐Locking 2.13.9 Mode Beats 2.13.10 Power Supply Ripple and Pump Noise 2.13.11 Microphonics 2.13.12 Frequency Noise 2.13.13 Spatial and Wiggle Noise 2.13.14 Polarization Noise 2.13.15 Etalon Fringes and Laser Noise 2.14 Diode Laser Coherence Control 2.14.1 External Cavity Diode Lasers 2.14.2 Injection Locking and MOPA 2.14.3 Strong UHF Modulation 2.14.4 Weaker Phase Modulation Chapter 3 Optical Detection 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Signal‐to‐Noise Ratios 3.2.1 Square Law Detectors 3.2.2 Photons 3.3 Detector Figures of Merit 3.3.1 Quantum Efficiency 3.3.2 Responsivity 3.3.3 Leakage Current 3.3.4 Noise‐Equivalent Power (NEP) 3.3.5 Specific Detectivity (D*) 3.3.6 Capacitance 3.3.6.1 Reverse Bias 3.3.7 Spectral Response 3.3.8 Spatial Uniformity 3.3.9 Series Resistance 3.3.10 Gotcha: RC Phase Shifts in the epi 3.3.11 Diffusion‐Limited Response 3.3.12 Another Gotcha: Ring Contact Photodiodes and Diffusion Tails 3.4 Quantum Detectors 3.4.1 Photodetection in Semiconductors 3.4.2 Photodiodes and Their Relatives 3.4.3 Shunt Resistance 3.4.4 Speed 3.4.5 Stability 3.4.6 Photodiodes and Pulses 3.4.7 Phototransistors 3.4.8 Prepackaged Combinations of Photodiodes with Amplifiers and Digitizers 3.4.9 Split Detectors 3.4.10 Lateral Effect Cells 3.4.10.1 Applying Reverse Bias to Lateral‐Effect Cells 3.4.11 Position‐Sensing Detector Pathologies 3.4.12 Other Position Sensing Detectors 3.4.13 Infrared Photodiodes 3.4.14 Quantum Well‐Infrared Photodiodes 3.5 Photomultipliers 3.5.1 PMT Circuit Considerations 3.5.2 PMTs in Detail 3.5.3 Choosing a Photocathode Material 3.5.4 QE Improvement Tricks 3.5.4.1 How to Kill a PMT 3.5.5 Making Accurate PMT Measurements 3.5.5.1 Nonlinearity in Analog‐Mode PMTs 3.5.6 Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) 3.5.7 APD Structure 3.5.8 Photon Counting with APDs 3.5.9 Multipixel Photon Counters 3.5.10 MPPCs and APDs vs. PMTs 3.5.10.1 MPPC Nonlinearity 3.5.11 Vacuum APDs 3.5.12 Photoconductors 3.6 Thermal Detectors 3.7 Image Intensifiers 3.7.1 Image Tubes 3.7.2 Microchannel Plates 3.7.3 Streak Tubes 3.8 Silicon Array Sensors 3.8.1 Charge‐Coupled Devices 3.8.2 Time Delay Integration (TDI) CCDs 3.8.3 Electron‐Multiplying CCDs 3.8.4 CMOS Imagers 3.8.5 Spatial Pattern Problems 3.8.6 Efficiency and Spectral Response 3.8.7 Correlated Double Sampling 3.8.8 Image Sensor Noise 3.8.9 Spatial Pattern 3.8.10 Linearity 3.8.11 Scientific CMOS Cameras 3.8.12 Charge Injection Devices (CIDs) 3.8.13 Photodiode Arrays 3.8.14 Video Cameras 3.8.15 Extending the Wavelength Range: CCDs + Fluors 3.8.16 Electron Storage Materials 3.8.17 Infrared Array Detectors 3.8.18 Intensified Cameras 3.8.19 Calibrating Image Sensors 3.8.20 Linearity Calibration 3.9 How Do I Know Which Noise Source Dominates? 3.9.1 Source Noise 3.9.2 Shot Noise 3.9.3 Background Fluctuations 3.9.4 Thermal Emission 3.9.5 Lattice Generation‐Recombination Noise 3.9.6 Multiplication Noise 3.9.7 Temperature Fluctuations 3.9.8 Electronic Noise 3.9.9 Noise Statistics 3.10 Hacks 3.10.1 Use an Optical Filter 3.10.2 Reduce the Field of View 3.10.3 Reduce the Detector Size 3.10.4 Tile with Detectors 3.10.5 Cool the Detector 3.10.6 Reduce the Duty Cycle 3.10.7 Use Coherent Detection 3.10.8 Catch the Front Surface Reflection 3.10.9 Watch Background Temperature 3.10.10 Form Linear Combinations 3.10.11 Use Solar Cells at AC 3.10.12 Make Windowed Photodiodes into Windowless Ones 3.10.13 Use a LED as a Photodetector 3.10.14 Use an Immersion Lens 3.10.15 Use a Non‐imaging Concentrator 3.10.16 Consider Fiber Bundles 3.10.17 Think Outside the Box Chapter 4 Lenses, Prisms, and Mirrors 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Optical Materials 4.2.1 Glass 4.2.2 Temperature Coefficients of Optical Materials 4.2.3 Air and Other Gases 4.2.4 Optical Plastics 4.3 Light Transmission 4.3.1 UV Materials 4.3.2 IR Materials 4.4 Surface Quality 4.5 Windows 4.5.1 Leading Order Optical Effects 4.5.2 Optical Flats 4.6 Pathologies of Optical Elements 4.6.1 Birefringence 4.7 Fringes 4.7.1 Surface Reflections 4.7.2 Etalon Fringes 4.7.3 Getting Rid of Fringes 4.7.4 Smearing Fringes Out 4.7.5 Advice 4.8 Mirrors 4.8.1 Plate Beamsplitters 4.8.2 Non‐polarizing Beamsplitters 4.8.3 Pellicles 4.8.4 Flat Mirrors 4.9 Glass Prisms 4.9.1 Right Angle and Porro Prisms 4.9.2 Dove Prisms 4.9.3 Equilateral, Brewster, and Littrow Prisms 4.9.4 Pentaprisms 4.9.5 Other Constant‐Angle Prisms 4.9.6 Wedges 4.9.7 Roof Prisms 4.9.8 Corner Reflectors and Cats' Eyes 4.9.9 Beamsplitter Cubes 4.9.10 Fresnel Rhombs 4.10 Prism Pathologies 4.11 Lenses 4.11.1 Thin Lenses 4.11.2 Thick Lenses 4.11.3 Fast Lenses 4.11.4 Lens Bending 4.11.5 Dependence of Aberrations on Wavelength and Refractive Index 4.11.6 Aspheric Lenses 4.11.7 Cylinder Lenses 4.12 Complex Lenses 4.12.1 Achromats and Apochromats 4.12.2 Camera Lenses 4.12.3 Microscope Objectives 4.12.4 Infinity Correction 4.12.5 Focusing Mirrors 4.12.6 Anamorphic Systems 4.12.7 Fringe Diagrams 4.13 Other Lenslike Devices 4.13.1 GRIN Lenses 4.13.2 Diffractive Lenses and Holographic Optical Elements 4.13.3 Fresnel Lenses 4.13.4 Microlens Arrays 4.13.5 Axicons Chapter 5 Coatings, Filters, and Surface Finishes 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Refraction and Reflection at an Interface 5.2 Metal Mirrors 5.2.1 Lossy Media 5.2.2 How Thick Does the Metal Have to Be? 5.2.3 Designing Metal Films 5.3 Transmissive Optical Coatings 5.3.1 Single Layer AR Coating 5.3.2 Dielectric Coating Materials 5.4 Simple Coating Theory 5.4.1 Multilayer Coating Theory 5.4.2 Lossless Coating Examples 5.4.3 Angle Tuning 5.4.4 Examples of Multilayer Coatings 5.4.5 Polarizing Beamsplitters 5.4.6 Holographic Polarizing Beamsplitters 5.4.7 Interference Filters 5.4.8 Coating Problems 5.4.9 Coating Plastics 5.5 Moth‐Eye Finishes 5.6 Absorptive Filters 5.6.1 Filter Glass 5.6.2 Internal and External Transmittance 5.6.3 Holographic Filters 5.6.4 Color Correcting Filters 5.7 Beam Dumps and Baffles 5.7.1 What Is a Black Surface? 5.7.2 Black Paint 5.7.3 India Ink 5.7.4 Black Anodizing 5.7.5 Dendritic Finishes 5.7.6 Black Appliques 5.7.7 Black Plastic 5.7.8 Black Wax 5.7.9 Black Glass 5.7.10 Designing Beam Dumps and Light Traps 5.7.11 Wood's Horn 5.7.12 Cone Dumps 5.7.13 Black Glass at Brewster's Angle 5.7.14 Shiny Baffles 5.7.15 Flat Black Baffles 5.7.16 Combinations 5.8 White Surfaces and Diffusers 5.8.1 Why Is It White? 5.8.2 Packed Powder Coatings 5.8.3 Barium Sulfate Paint 5.8.4 Spectralon 5.8.5 Opal Glass 5.8.6 Magic Invisible Tape 5.8.7 Integrating Spheres 5.8.8 Ping‐Pong Balls 5.8.9 Ground Glass 5.8.10 Holographic Diffusers 5.8.11 Microlens Arrays 5.8.12 Diffusers and Speckle Chapter 6 Polarization 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Polarization of Light 6.2.1 Unpolarized Light 6.2.2 Highly Polarized Light 6.2.3 Circular Polarization 6.2.4 An Often‐Ignored Effect: The Pancharatnam–Berry Topological Phase 6.2.5 Orthogonal Polarizations 6.3 Interaction of Polarization with Materials 6.3.1 Polarizers 6.3.2 Birefringence 6.3.3 Retardation 6.3.4 Double Refraction 6.3.5 Walkoff 6.3.6 Optical Activity 6.3.7 Faraday Effect 6.3.8 Polarization and Lossy Coatings 6.4 Absorption Polarizers 6.4.1 Film Polarizers 6.4.2 Wire Grid Polarizers 6.4.3 Polarizing Glass 6.5 Brewster Polarizers 6.5.1 Pile‐of‐Plates Polarizers 6.5.2 Multilayer Polarizers 6.5.3 Polarizing Cubes 6.6 Birefringent Polarizers 6.6.1 Walkoff Plates 6.6.2 Savart Plates 6.7 Double‐Refraction Polarizers 6.7.1 Wollaston Prisms 6.7.2 Rochon Prisms 6.7.3 Cobbling Wollastons 6.7.4 Nomarski Wedges 6.7.5 Homemade Polarizing Prisms 6.8 TIR Polarizers 6.8.1 Refraction and Reflection at Birefringent Surfaces 6.8.2 Glan–Taylor 6.8.3 Glan–Thompson 6.9 Retarders 6.9.1 Wave Plates 6.9.2 Quarter Wave Plates 6.9.3 Half Wave Plates 6.9.4 Full Wave Plates 6.9.5 Multi‐order Wave Plates 6.9.6 ‘Zero‐Order’ Wave Plates 6.9.7 Film and Mica 6.9.8 Circular Polarizers 6.9.9 Subwavelength Grating Retarders 6.10 Polarization Control 6.10.1 Basis Sets for Fully Polarized Light 6.10.2 Partial Polarization and the Jones Matrix Calculus 6.10.3 Polarization States 6.10.4 Polarization Compensators 6.10.5 Circular Polarizing Film for Glare Control 6.10.6 Polarization Rotators 6.10.7 Depolarizers 6.10.8 Faraday Rotators and Optical Isolators 6.10.9 Beam Separators 6.10.10 Lossless Interferometers 6.10.11 Faraday Rotator Mirrors and Polarization Insensitivity Chapter 7 Exotic Optical Components 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Gratings 7.2.1 Diffraction Orders 7.3 Grating Pathologies 7.3.1 Stray Light 7.3.2 Order Overlap 7.3.3 Ghosts 7.3.4 Mechanical Instability 7.3.5 Polarization Sensitivity 7.4 Types of Gratings 7.4.1 Reflection and Transmission Gratings 7.4.2 Ruled Gratings 7.4.3 Holographic Gratings 7.4.4 Concave Gratings 7.4.5 Echelles 7.5 Resolution of Grating Instruments 7.5.1 Spectral Selectivity and Slits 7.5.2 Angular Dispersion Factor 7.5.3 Diffraction Limit 7.5.4 Slit‐Limited Resolution 7.5.5 Étendue 7.6 Fine Points of Gratings 7.6.1 Order Strengths 7.6.2 Polarization Dependence 7.6.3 Bragg Gratings 7.7 Holographic Optical Elements 7.7.1 Combining Dispersing Elements 7.8 Photonic Crystals and Metamaterials 7.8.1 Photonic Crystals 7.8.2 Metamaterials 7.9 Retroreflective Materials 7.10 Scanners 7.10.1 Galvos 7.10.2 Rotating Scanners 7.10.3 Polygon Scanners 7.10.4 Polygon Drawbacks 7.10.5 Eliminating Scan Wobble 7.10.6 Software Raster Correction 7.10.7 Descanning 7.10.8 Constant Linear Scan Speed 7.10.9 Hologons 7.10.10 Fast and Cheap Scanners 7.10.11 Dispersive Scanning 7.10.12 Raster Scanning 7.10.13 Mechanical Scanning 7.11 Modulators 7.11.1 Pockels and Kerr Cells 7.11.2 House‐Trained Pockels Cells: Resonant and Transverse 7.11.3 Electro‐Optic Deflectors 7.11.4 Liquid Crystal 7.11.5 Acousto‐Optic Cells 7.11.6 Acousto‐Optic Tunable Filters 7.11.7 Acousto‐Optic Deflectors 7.11.8 Photoelastic Modulators 7.11.9 Acousto‐optic Laser Isolators Chapter 8 Fiber Optics 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Fiber Characteristics 8.2.1 Fiber Virtues 8.2.2 Ideal Properties of Fiber 8.2.3 Fiber Vices 8.3 Fiber Theory 8.3.1 Modes 8.3.2 Degeneracy 8.3.3 Mode Coupling 8.3.4 Space‐Variant Coupling 8.3.5 Dispersion 8.3.6 Other Effects in Single Mode Fiber 8.4 Fiber Types 8.4.1 Single Mode Optical Fibers 8.4.2 Multimode Optical Fibers 8.4.2.1 Mode Spectrum and Loss 8.4.2.2 Multimode Fiber Étendue 8.4.3 Few‐Mode Fiber 8.4.4 Polarization‐Maintaining (PM) Fiber 8.4.5 Photonic‐Crystal Fiber 8.4.6 Chalcogenide Fibers for IR Power Transmission 8.4.7 Fiber Bundles and Étendue Management 8.4.8 Split Bundles 8.4.9 Coupling into Bundles 8.4.10 Liquid Light Guides 8.5 Other Fiber Properties 8.5.1 Leaky Modes 8.5.2 Cladding Modes 8.5.3 Bending 8.5.4 Bending and Mandrel Wrapping 8.5.5 Bend Birefringence and Polarization Compensators 8.5.6 Piezo‐optical Effect and Pressure Birefringence 8.5.7 Twisting and Optical Activity 8.5.8 Fiber Loss Mechanisms 8.5.9 Mechanical Properties 8.5.10 Fabry–Perot Effects 8.5.11 Strain Effects 8.5.12 Temperature Coefficients 8.5.13 Bad Company: Fibers and Laser Noise 8.5.14 Fiber Dispersion and FM Noise 8.6 Working with Fibers 8.6.1 Getting Light In and Out 8.6.2 Launching Into Fibers in the Lab 8.6.3 Waveguide‐to‐Waveguide Coupling 8.6.4 Connecting Single‐Mode to Multimode Fiber 8.6.5 Fibers and Pulses 8.6.6 Mounting Fibers in Instruments 8.6.7 Connectors 8.6.8 Splices 8.6.9 Expanded‐Beam Connectors 8.6.10 Cleaving Fibers 8.7 Fiber Devices 8.7.1 Fiber Couplers 8.7.2 Fiber Gratings 8.7.3 Type II Gratings 8.7.4 Fiber Amplifiers 8.7.5 Fiber Lasers 8.7.6 Fiber Polarizers 8.7.7 Modulators 8.7.8 Switches 8.7.9 Isolators 8.8 Diode Lasers and Fiber Optics 8.9 Fiber Optic Sensors 8.9.1 Sensitivity 8.9.2 Stabilization Strategy 8.9.3 Handling Excess Noise 8.9.4 Source Drift 8.10 Intensity Sensors 8.10.1 Microbend Sensors 8.10.2 Fiber Pyrometers 8.10.3 Fluorescence Sensors 8.10.4 Optical Time‐Domain Reflectometry 8.11 Spectrally Encoded Sensors 8.11.1 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors 8.11.2 Extrinsic Fabry–Perot Sensors 8.11.3 Other Strain Sensors 8.11.4 Fiber Bundle Spectrometers 8.11.5 Raman Thermometers 8.11.6 Band Edge Shift 8.11.7 Colorimetric Sensors 8.12 Polarimetric Sensors 8.12.1 Faraday Effect Ammeters 8.12.2 Birefringent Fiber 8.12.3 Photonic Crystal Fiber Sensors 8.13 Fiber Interferometers 8.13.1 Single Mode Interferometers 8.13.2 Two‐Mode Interferometers 8.14 Two‐Beam Fiber Interferometers 8.14.1 Mach–Zehnder 8.14.2 Michelson 8.14.3 Sagnac 8.15 Multiple Beam Fiber Interferometers 8.15.1 Fabry–Perot 8.15.2 Ring Resonator 8.15.3 Motion Sensors 8.15.4 Coherence‐Domain Techniques 8.16 Phase and Polarization Stabilization 8.16.1 Passive Interrogation 8.16.2 Frequency Modulation 8.16.3 Fringe Surfing 8.16.4 Broadband Light 8.16.5 Ratiometric Operation 8.16.6 Polarization‐Insensitive Sensors 8.16.7 Polarization Diversity 8.16.8 Temperature Compensation 8.16.9 Annealing 8.17 Multiplexing and Smart Structures 8.18 Fiber Sensor Hype Chapter 9 Optical Systems 9.1 Introduction 9.2 What, Exactly, Does a Lens Do? 9.2.1 Ray Optics 9.2.2 Connecting Rays and Waves: Wavefronts 9.2.3 Rays and the Eikonal Equation 9.2.4 Geometric Optics and Electromagnetism 9.2.5 Variational Principles in Ray Optics 9.2.6 Schlieren Effect 9.2.7 The Geometrical Theory of Diffraction 9.2.8 Pupils 9.2.9 Invariants 9.2.10 The Abbe Sine Condition 9.2.11 Optical Systems Nomenclature 9.3 Diffraction 9.3.1 Plane Wave Representation 9.3.2 Green's Functions and Diffraction 9.3.3 The Kirchhoff Approximation 9.3.4 Plane Wave Spectrum of Diffracted Light 9.3.5 Diffraction at High NA 9.3.6 Propagating from a Pupil to an Image 9.3.7 Telecentricity 9.3.8 Stereoscopy 9.3.9 The Importance of the Pupil Function 9.3.10 Coherent Transfer Functions 9.3.11 Optical Transfer Functions 9.3.12 Shortcomings of the OTF Concept 9.3.13 Modulation Transfer Function 9.3.14 Cascading Optical Systems 9.3.15 Which Transfer Function Should I Use? 9.4 Aberrations 9.4.1 Aberration Nomenclature 9.4.2 Aberrations of Windows 9.4.3 Broken Symmetry and Oblique Aberrations 9.4.4 Dependence on Stop Position 9.5 Representing Aberrations 9.5.1 Seidel Aberrations 9.5.2 Aberrations of Beams 9.5.3 Chromatic Aberrations 9.5.4 Strehl Ratio 9.6 Optical Design Advice 9.6.1 Keep Your Eye on the Final Output 9.6.2 Combining Aberration Contributions 9.7 Practical Applications 9.7.1 Spatial Filtering – How and Why 9.7.2 How to Clean Up Beams 9.7.3 Dust Doughnuts 9.8 Illuminators 9.8.1 Flying‐Spot Systems 9.8.2 Direction Cosine Space 9.8.3 Bright and Dark Field 9.8.4 Flashlight Illumination 9.8.5 Critical Illumination 9.8.6 Köhler Illumination 9.8.7 Testing Illuminators 9.8.8 Image Radiance Uniformity 9.8.9 Contrast and Illumination 9.8.10 Retroreflectors and Illumination Chapter 10 Optical Measurements 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Grass on the Empire State Building 10.2.1 Background, Noise, and Spurious Signals 10.2.2 Pedestal 10.2.3 Background Fluctuations 10.2.4 Noise Statistics 10.2.5 Laser Noise 10.2.6 Lamp Noise 10.2.7 Media Noise 10.2.8 Electrical Interference 10.2.9 Electronic Noise 10.2.10 Quantization Noise 10.2.11 Baseband Isn't a Great Neighborhood 10.3 Detection Issues: When Exactly Is Background Bad? 10.3.1 Dark Field 10.3.2 Bright Field: Amplitude vs. Intensity Sensitivity 10.3.3 Coherent Background 10.3.4 Optical Theorem 10.3.5 Dim Field Measurements 10.3.6 Bright and Dark Field are Equivalent 10.3.7 Heterodyne Interferometry 10.3.8 SSB Interferometers 10.3.9 Shot‐Noise Limited Measurements at Baseband 10.4 Measure the Right Thing 10.4.1 Phase Measurements 10.4.2 Multiple‐Scale Measurements Extend Dynamic Range 10.4.3 Fringes 10.5 Getting More Signal Photons 10.5.1 Don't Throw Photons Away 10.5.2 Optimize the Geometry 10.5.3 Use Laser Scanning Measurements 10.5.4 Modify the Sample 10.5.5 Corral Those Photons 10.6 Reducing the Background Fluctuations 10.6.1 Beam Pointing Stabilization 10.6.2 Beam Intensity Stabilization 10.6.3 Photocurrent Stabilization 10.6.4 Ratiometric Measurements 10.6.5 Changing the Physics 10.7 Optically Zero‐Background Measurements 10.7.1 Dark Field 10.7.2 Fringe‐based Devices 10.8 Spectrally Resolved Measurements 10.8.1 LEDs and Filters 10.8.2 Grating Spectroscopy 10.8.2.1 OMA Spectroscopy 10.8.2.2 Slitless Spectroscopy 10.8.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 10.8.4 Fluorescence and Photon Counting 10.8.5 Nonlinear and Bilinear Measurements 10.8.6 Non‐Optical Detection 10.8.7 Active Fringe Surfing 10.8.8 Polarization Tricks 10.8.9 Optical Time Gating 10.9 Electronically Zero‐Background Measurements 10.9.1 Polarization Flopping 10.9.2 Electronic Time Gating 10.9.3 Nulling Measurements 10.9.4 Differential Measurements 10.9.5 Other Linear Combinations 10.9.6 Laser Noise Cancellers 10.10 Labeling Signal Photons 10.10.1 Chopping 10.10.2 Scanning 10.10.3 AC Measurements 10.10.4 Modulation Mixing 10.10.5 AC Interference 10.10.6 Labeling Modulation Phase 10.10.7 Labeling Arrival Time 10.10.8 Labeling Time Dependence 10.10.9 Labeling Wavelength 10.10.10 Labeling Coherence 10.10.11 Labeling Coincidence 10.10.12 Labeling Position 10.10.13 Labeling Polarization 10.11 Closure Chapter 11 Designing Electro‐Optical Systems 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Do You Really Want To Do This? 11.2.1 Collegiality 11.2.2 Collegiality and Team Productivity 11.2.3 Choosing Projects 11.2.4 Procedural Advice 11.2.4.1 Take Play Seriously 11.2.4.2 Design Standing Up 11.2.4.3 Take Counsel of the Devil 11.2.4.4 Resist Over‐Promising 11.2.4.5 Keep Some Margin in Your Back Pocket 11.2.4.6 Have People to Cover Your Back 11.2.4.7 Confess When Your Project Is on the Skids 11.2.4.8 Define What Constitutes Success 11.2.4.9 Know Your Organization 11.2.4.10 Understand Your Position 11.2.4.11 Become a Wizard 11.2.4.12 Don't Build a Pyramid 11.2.4.13 Understand the Pecking Order 11.2.4.14 Don't Fight “Good Enough” 11.2.4.15 Achieve Agreement on Specifications Before Starting 11.2.4.16 Show Some Hustle 11.2.4.17 Watch Out for Liability 11.2.4.18 Pssst…Just Between You and Me: Sometimes the Naysayers Are Right 11.3 Very Basic Marketing 11.3.1 Who Or What Is Your Customer? 11.3.2 Making A Business Case: Internal 11.3.3 Making A Business Case: External 11.3.4 Don't Destroy the Market 11.3.5 Budget for Market Creation 11.3.6 Budget for After‐Sales Support 11.4 Classes of Measurement 11.4.1 Know Your Measurement Physics 11.4.2 Crunchy Measurements 11.4.3 In‐Between Measurements 11.4.4 Squishy Measurements 11.4.5 Pretty Pictures 11.4.6 Pretty‐Pictures Measurements 11.5 Technical Taste 11.5.1 Know What Your System Should Look Like 11.5.1.1 Don't Measure Anything You Don't Care About 11.5.1.2 Avoid Obese Digital Processing 11.5.1.3 Have a Fallback Position 11.5.1.4 Design Defensively 11.5.1.5 Avoid Underengineered Complexity 11.5.1.6 Know When It's Time for a Clean Sheet of Paper 11.5.1.7 Beware of Signal Processing Fads 11.5.1.8 Beware of Optical Fads 11.6 Instrument Design 11.6.1 Where to Begin 11.6.1.1 Know the Problem 11.6.1.2 Mess Around With the Tools 11.6.1.3 Understand the Sources of SNR Limitations 11.6.1.4 Look for other constraints 11.6.1.5 Write a Specification 11.6.1.6 Include All Relevant Parameters 11.6.1.7 Solve Stupid Problems by Overkill 11.6.1.8 Make Tradeoffs Early 11.6.1.9 Identify Show‐Stoppers Early 11.6.1.10 Do Your Tool‐Building Early 11.6.1.11 Know What Limits You're Pushing and Why 11.6.1.12 Use Standard Parts 11.6.1.13 Make Good Drawings 11.6.1.14 It Isn't Finished Until the Test Stand's Done 11.7 Guiding Principles 11.7.1 Design Strategy 11.7.1.1 Trust Freshman Physics 11.7.1.2 Believe Your Photon Budget 11.7.1.3 Reduce the Background 11.7.1.4 Don't Yearn for Greener Pastures 11.7.1.5 Model It 11.7.1.6 Get Ground Truth 11.7.1.7 Keep It Simple 11.7.1.8 Move the Goal Posts 11.7.1.9 Always Try It “the Other Way Round” 11.7.1.10 Build the Test Fixture Into the Instrument 11.7.1.11 Keep Gross Errors Obvious 11.7.1.12 Stability Is Even More Important Than SNR 11.8 Design for Alignment 11.8.1 Alignment Hygiene 11.8.1.1 Use Corner Cube Interferometers 11.8.1.2 Allow Some Slop 11.8.1.3 Use the Poor Man's Corner Cube: Retroreflective Tape 11.8.1.4 Put in a Viewer – You Can't Align What You Can't See 11.8.1.5 Use Verniers 11.8.1.6 Adjust the Right Thing 11.8.1.7 Watch Out for Temperature Gradients 11.8.1.8 Usually Follow the Leader 11.8.1.9 Don't Always Follow the Leader 11.9 Turning a Prototype into a Product 11.9.1 Be Very Careful of “Minor” Optical Design Changes 11.9.2 Don't Design in Etalon Fringes 11.9.3 Demos 11.9.3.1 The Story 11.9.3.2 The Demo 11.9.4 Handle Demo Karma Gracefully Chapter 12 Building Optical Systems 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Construction Style 12.3 Build What You Designed 12.3.1 Trust But Verify 12.4 Assembling Lab Systems 12.4.1 Build Horizontally 12.4.2 Use Metal 12.4.3 Scribble on the Optical Table 12.4.4 Mounts 12.4.5 Use Microbench for Complicated Systems 12.4.6 Machine a Base Plate 12.4.7 Use Irises 12.4.8 Getting The Right Height 12.4.9 Light‐Tightness 12.4.10 Chop Up 35 mm SLR Cameras 12.4.11 Try To Use At Least One Screw Per Component 12.4.12 The Poor Man's Machine Shop: JB Weld Putty 12.4.13 Detector Alignment Needs Thought 12.4.14 Do‐It‐Yourself Spatial Filters 12.4.15 Field Lenses 12.4.16 Things to Count On 12.4.17 Clamping 12.4.18 Soft Lenses 12.4.19 Dimensional Stability 12.4.20 Too Much of a Good Thing: Hard Epoxy 12.4.21 Beam Quality 12.4.22 Siegman's M2 Beam Propagation Factor 12.4.23 Image Quality 12.5 Optical Assembly and Alignment Philosophy 12.5.1 Stability 12.5.2 Orthogonality 12.5.3 Use Serendipitous Information 12.6 Collimating Beams 12.6.1 Direct Collimation 12.6.2 Fizeau Wedges 12.6.3 Shear Plates 12.6.4 Collimeter 12.7 Focusing 12.7.1 Autocollimation 12.7.2 Direct Viewing 12.7.3 Foucault Knife Edge 12.7.4 Intensity‐Based Chopping Tests 12.7.5 Diffraction Focusing 12.7.6 Diffraction Interferometry 12.7.7 Speckle Focusing 12.7.8 Focusing Imagers 12.7.9 Standards 12.7.10 Sub‐apertures 12.8 Alignment and Testing 12.9 Prototypes 12.9.1 Cage Systems 12.9.2 Optical Tables 12.10 Aligning Beams with Other Beams 12.10.1 Co‐Propagating Beams 12.10.2 Constrained Beam‐to‐Beam Alignment 12.10.3 Counterpropagating Beams 12.11 Advanced Tweaking 12.11.1 Interferometers and Back‐Reflections 12.11.2 Collinearity 12.11.3 Backlash and Stick‐Slip 12.11.4 Adding Verniers 12.11.5 Cavities With Obstructions 12.11.6 Aligning Two‐Beam Interferometers 12.11.7 Aligning Heterodyne Interferometers 12.11.8 Measuring Focal Lengths 12.11.9 Aligning Fabry–Perot Interferometers 12.11.10 Aligning Lasers 12.11.11 Aligning Spatial Filters 12.11.12 Use Corner Cubes and Pentaprisms 12.11.13 Use Quad Cells For XY Alignment 12.11.14 Use Fringes for Angular Alignment 12.12 Aligning Laser Systems 12.12.1 Define an Axis 12.12.2 Adding Elements 12.12.3 Marking Lens Elements 12.12.4 Lenses Are Easier Than Mirrors, Especially Off‐Axis Aspheres 12.12.5 Use an Oscilloscope 12.13 Adhesives 12.13.1 Structural Adhesives 12.13.2 Optical Adhesives: UV Epoxy 12.13.3 Optical Contacting 12.13.4 Hydroxyl Bonding 12.13.5 Frit Bonding and “Glass Solder” 12.13.6 Temporary Joints: Index Oil and Wax 12.14 Cleaning 12.14.1 What Does a Clean Lens Look Like? 12.14.2 When to Clean 12.14.3 Cleaning Lenses 12.14.4 Cleaning Gratings 12.14.5 Peel‐Off Cleaning Coatings: Collodion 12.15 Environmental Considerations 12.15.1 Fungus 12.15.2 Coating Drift 12.15.3 Lens Staining 12.15.4 Drift From Temperature and Humidity Chapter 13 Signal Processing 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Analog Signal Processing Theory 13.2.1 Two Port Black Box 13.2.2 Linearity and Superposition 13.2.3 Time Invariance 13.2.4 Fourier Space Representation 13.2.5 Analytic Signals 13.3 Modulation and Demodulation 13.3.1 Terms 13.3.2 Phasors 13.3.3 Frequency Mixing 13.3.4 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 13.3.5 Double Sideband (DSB) 13.3.6 Single Sideband (SSB) 13.3.7 Phase Modulation (PM) 13.3.8 Frequency Modulation (FM) 13.4 Amplifiers 13.5 Departures From Linearity 13.5.1 Harmonics 13.5.2 Frequency Multipliers 13.5.3 Intermodulation 13.5.4 Saturation 13.5.5 Gain Plans 13.5.6 Cross‐Modulation 13.5.7 AM–PM conversion 13.5.8 Distortion in Angle‐Modulated Systems 13.5.9 Keeping Spurs Under Control 13.6 Noise and Interference 13.6.1 White Noise and 1/f Noise 13.6.2 Popcorn Noise 13.6.3 Johnson (Thermal) Noise 13.6.4 Shot Noise in Circuits 13.6.5 Other Circuit Noise 13.6.6 Noise Figure, Noise Temperature, and All That 13.6.7 Noise Models of Amplifiers 13.6.8 Noise Bandwidth 13.6.9 Measuring Noise 13.6.10 Combining Noise Contributions 13.6.11 Noise of Cascaded Stages 13.6.12 Interference: What Does a Spur Do To My Measurement, Anyway? 13.6.13 AM Noise and PM Noise 13.6.14 Additive vs. Multiplicative Noise 13.6.15 Oscillator Noise Spectra 13.6.15.1 Laser Noise 13.6.16 Noise Statistics 13.6.17 Gaussian Statistics 13.6.18 Shot Noise Statistics 13.6.19 Thresholding 13.6.20 Photon Counting Detection 13.7 Frequency Conversion 13.7.1 Mixers 13.7.2 Choosing an IF 13.7.3 Image Rejection 13.7.4 High Side vs. Low Side LO 13.7.5 Direct Conversion 13.7.6 Effects of LO Noise 13.7.7 Gain Distribution 13.7.8 Software‐Defined Radio 13.8 Filtering 13.8.1 Cascading Filters 13.8.2 Impulse Response 13.8.3 Step Response 13.8.4 Causality 13.8.5 Filter Design 13.8.6 Group Delay 13.8.7 Hilbert Transform Filters 13.8.8 Linear Phase Bandpass and Highpass Filters 13.8.9 How to Choose a Filter 13.8.10 Matched Filtering and Pulses 13.8.11 Pulsed Measurements and Shot Noise 13.8.12 Pulsed Measurements and Correlated Double Sampling 13.9 Signal Detection 13.9.1 Phase Sensitive Detectors 13.9.2 AM Detectors 13.9.3 PLL Detectors 13.9.4 FM/PM Detectors 13.9.5 Phase‐Locked Loops 13.9.6 I and Q Detection 13.9.7 Pulse Detection 13.10 Reducing Interference and Noise 13.10.1 Lock‐In Amplifiers 13.10.2 Filter Banks 13.10.3 Synchronization 13.10.4 Time‐Gated Detection 13.10.5 Signal Averaging 13.10.6 Frequency Tracking 13.10.7 Modulation‐Mixing Measurements 13.11 Data Acquisition and Control 13.11.1 Quantization 13.11.2 Choosing A Sampling Strategy 13.11.3 Designing with ADCs 13.11.4 Choosing the Resolution 13.11.5 Keep Zero On‐Scale Chapter 14 Electronic Building Blocks 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Resistors 14.2.1 Resistor Arrays 14.2.2 Potentiometers 14.2.3 Trim Pots 14.2.4 Loaded Pots 14.3 Capacitors 14.3.1 Ceramic and Plastic Film Capacitors 14.3.2 Surface Mount Film Capacitors 14.3.3 Parasitic Inductance and Resistance 14.3.4 Dielectric Absorption 14.3.5 Electrolytic Capacitors 14.3.6 Variable Capacitors 14.3.7 Varactor Diodes 14.3.8 Inductors 14.3.9 High Frequency Inductors 14.3.10 Variable Inductors 14.3.11 Resonance 14.3.12 L‐Networks and Q 14.3.13 Inductive Coupling 14.3.14 Loss In Resonant Circuits 14.3.15 Temperature Compensating Resonances 14.3.16 Transformers 14.3.17 Tank Circuits 14.4 Transmission Lines 14.4.1 Mismatch and Reflections 14.4.2 Quarter‐Wave Series Sections 14.4.3 Coaxial Cable 14.4.4 Balanced Lines 14.4.5 Twisted Pair 14.4.6 Microstrip 14.4.7 Termination Strategies 14.5 Transmission Line Devices 14.5.1 Attenuators 14.5.2 Shunt Stubs 14.5.3 Trombone Lines 14.5.4 Transmission Line Transformers and Chokes 14.5.5 Directional Couplers 14.5.6 Splitters and Tees 14.6 Diodes 14.6.1 Diode Switches 14.7 Bipolar Junction Transistors 14.7.1 Temperature Dependence of IS and VBE 14.7.2 Speed 14.7.3 Bias Stability 14.7.4 Negative Feedback 14.7.5 Miller Effect 14.7.6 Cutoff and Saturation 14.7.7 Inverted Transistors 14.7.8 Amplifier Configurations 14.7.9 Differential Pairs 14.7.10 Cascode Amplifiers 14.7.11 Silicon Germanium BJTs 14.7.12 Current‐Mode Circuitry 14.8 Field‐Effect Transistors (FETs) 14.8.1 Junction FETs 14.9 Heterojunction FETs 14.9.1 Cascoding pHEMTs 14.10 Signal Processing Components 14.10.1 Choosing Components 14.10.2 Read the Data Sheet Carefully 14.10.3 Don't Trust Typical Specs 14.10.4 Watch for Gotchas 14.10.5 Specsmanship 14.10.5.1 Dishonest Specsmanship 14.10.6 Mixers 14.10.7 LO Effects 14.10.8 Mixers and Impedance Matching 14.10.9 Op Amps 14.10.10 Differential Amps 14.10.11 RF Amps 14.10.12 Isolation Amps 14.10.13 Radio ICs 14.10.14 Stability 14.10.15 Slew Rate 14.10.16 Settling Time 14.10.17 Limiting Amplifiers 14.10.18 Lock‐In Amplifiers 14.11 Digitizers 14.11.1 Voltage References 14.11.2 Digital‐to‐Analog Converters 14.11.3 Delta‐Sigma Modulators 14.11.4 Track/Hold amplifiers 14.11.5 Analog‐To‐Digital Converters 14.11.6 DAC and ADC Pathologies 14.11.7 Differential Nonlinearity And Histograms 14.11.8 Dynamic Errors 14.11.9 Dynamic Range 14.11.10 ADC Noise 14.11.11 Ultrafast ADCs 14.12 Analog Behavior of Digital Circuits 14.12.1 Frequency Dividers 14.12.2 Phase Noise and Jitter of Logic 14.12.3 Analog Uses of Gates and Inverters Chapter 15 Electronic Subsystem Design 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Design Approaches 15.2.1 Describe the Problem Carefully 15.2.2 Systems Engineers and Thermodynamics 15.2.3 Guess a Block Diagram 15.2.4 Getting the Gains Right 15.2.5 Error Budget 15.2.6 Lab Systems and Proof‐of‐Concept Protos 15.2.7 Interface Design 15.3 Perfection 15.3.1 Flying Capacitors Can Add and Subtract Perfectly 15.3.2 Independent Noise Sources Are Really Uncorrelated 15.4 Feedback Loops 15.4.1 Feedback Amplifier Theory and Frequency Compensation 15.4.2 Loop Gain 15.4.3 Adding Poles and Zeroes 15.4.4 Integrating Loops 15.4.5 Settling and Windup 15.4.6 Speedup Tricks 15.4.7 Output Loading 15.5 Local Feedback 15.6 Signal Detectors 15.6.1 AM Detection 15.6.2 Emitter Detector 15.6.3 Synchronous Detectors 15.6.4 High Performance Envelope Detection 15.6.5 Pulse Detection 15.6.6 Gated Integrators 15.6.7 Two‐Diode Line Triggers 15.6.8 Peak Track/Hold 15.6.9 Perfect Rectifiers 15.6.10 Logarithmic Detectors 15.6.11 Phase Sensitive Detectors 15.6.12 FM Detectors 15.6.13 Delay Discriminator 15.7 Phase‐Locked Loops 15.7.1 PLL Lock Acquisition 15.7.2 Loop Design 15.7.3 More Complicated PLLs 15.7.4 Noise in PLLs 15.7.5 Lock Detection 15.7.6 Acquisition Aids 15.8 Calibration 15.8.1 Calibrating Phase Detectors 15.8.2 Calibrating Amplitude Detectors 15.8.3 Calibrating a Limiter 15.9 Filters 15.9.1 LC Filters 15.9.2 Butterworth Filters 15.9.3 Chebyshev Filters 15.9.4 Filters With Good Group Delay 15.9.5 Filters With Good Skirts 15.9.6 Lowpass to Bandpass Transformation 15.9.7 Tuned Amplifiers 15.9.8 Use Diplexers to Control Reflections and Instability 15.9.9 Belleman Absorptive Filters 15.10 Other Stuff 15.10.1 CW Diode Laser Controllers 15.10.2 Pulsed Diode Laser Controllers 15.10.3 Digitizing Other Stuff 15.10.4 Use Sleazy Approximations and Circuit Hacks 15.10.5 Oscillators 15.11 More Advanced Feedback Techniques 15.11.1 Put the Nonlinearity in the Loop 15.11.2 Feedback Nulling 15.11.3 Auto‐zeroing 15.11.4 Automatic Gain Control 15.11.5 Automatic Level Control 15.11.6 Feedback Loops Don't Have to Go to DC 15.12 Hints 15.12.1 Invert When Possible 15.12.2 Watch for Startup Problems 15.12.3 Subtract, Don't Divide 15.13 Linearizing 15.13.1 Balanced Circuits 15.13.2 Off‐Stage Resonance 15.13.3 Waveform Control 15.13.4 Breakpoint Amplifiers 15.13.5 Feedback Using Matched Nonlinearities 15.13.6 Inverting a Linear Control 15.13.7 Feedforward 15.13.8 Predistortion and Preemphasis 15.14 Ultrastable Low Frequency Circuits 15.15 Digital Control and Communication 15.15.1 Multiple Serial DACS and Digital Pots 15.15.2 Data Acquisition Bricks 15.15.2.1 Nonsimultaneous Sampling 15.15.2.2 Simultaneous Control and Acquisition 15.15.3 Doing Better Data Acq in the Lab 15.15.4 Programmable Logic 15.16 Miscellaneous Tricks 15.16.1 Avalanche Transistors 15.17 Bulletproofing 15.17.1 Hangup States 15.17.2 Hot Plugging 15.17.3 Short‐Circuit Protection 15.17.4 Series Current Limiters 15.17.5 Transient Overvoltage Protection 15.17.6 Continuous Overvoltage Protection 15.17.7 Thermal Fault Protection 15.18 Interference 15.18.1 Switching Power Supply Problems 15.19 Reliable Designs 15.19.1 It Works Once, How Do I Make It Work Many Times? 15.19.2 Center Your Design Chapter 16 Electronic Construction Techniques 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Circuit Strays 16.3 Circuit Boards 16.3.1 Microstrip Line 16.3.2 Inductance and Capacitance of Traces 16.3.3 Stray Inductance 16.3.4 Stray Capacitance 16.3.5 Measuring Capacitance 16.4 Stray Coupling 16.4.1 Capacitive Coupling 16.4.2 Transmission Line Coupling 16.4.3 Telling Them Apart 16.5 Ground Plane Construction 16.5.1 Ground Currents 16.5.2 Ground Planes 16.5.3 Relieving the Ground Plane 16.5.4 Skin Depth 16.5.5 Shielding Effectiveness and the Large Box Effect 16.6 Technical Noise and Interference 16.6.1 What Is Ground, Anyway? 16.6.2 Ground Loops 16.6.3 Floating Transducers 16.6.4 Mixed Signal Boards 16.6.5 High‐Impedance Nodes and Layout 16.6.6 High‐Density Interconnects and Interference 16.6.7 Connecting Coaxial Cables 16.6.8 Bypassing and Ground/Supply Inductance 16.6.9 Bypass Capacitor Self‐Resonances 16.6.10 Decoupling Analog Circuits 16.7 Product Construction 16.7.1 Cost vs. Performance 16.7.2 Chassis Grounds 16.7.3 PC Boards 16.7.4 Design for Test 16.7.5 Connectors and Switches 16.7.6 Multi‐Card Systems 16.8 Getting Ready 16.8.1 Buy a Stock of Parts 16.8.2 Get the Right Equipment 16.8.3 Soldering 16.8.4 Cleaning 16.9 Prototyping 16.9.1 Dead Bug Method 16.9.2 SPICE Simulations 16.9.3 When to Prototype 16.9.4 Laying Out the Prototype 16.9.5 Adding Components 16.9.6 Hookup Wire 16.9.7 Wire It Correctly and Check It 16.9.8 Cobbling Copper Clad Board 16.9.9 Perforated Board 16.9.10 Perf Board with Pads 16.9.11 White Solderless Breadboards 16.9.12 Prototype Printed Circuit Boards 16.9.13 Blowing Up Prototypes 16.10 Surface Mount Prototypes 16.10.1 Quick‐Turn PC Boards 16.10.2 Stuffing Surface Mount PC Boards 16.10.3 Reflow Soldering 16.10.4 Debugging SMT Boards 16.10.5 Probe Stations 16.10.6 Hacking SMTs 16.10.7 Board Leakage 16.11 Prototyping Filters 16.11.1 Standard Capacitors 16.11.2 Calibrating Inductors and Capacitors: A Hack 16.11.3 Filter Layout 16.11.4 Watch for Inductive Coupling 16.12 Tuning, or, You Can't Hit What You Can't See Chapter 17 Digital Signal Processing 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Elementary Operations 17.2.1 Gain and Offset 17.2.2 Background Correction and Calibration 17.2.3 Frame Subtraction 17.2.4 Baseline Restoration 17.2.5 Two Channel Correction 17.2.6 Plane Subtraction and Drift 17.2.7 More Aggressive Drift Correction 17.3 Dead Time Correction 17.4 Fourier Domain Techniques 17.4.1 Discrete Function Spaces 17.4.2 Finite Length Data 17.4.3 Sampled Data Systems 17.4.4 The Sampling Theorem and Aliasing 17.4.5 Discrete Convolution 17.4.6 Fourier Series Theorems 17.4.7 The Discrete Fourier Transform 17.5 The Fast Fourier Transform 17.5.1 Does the DFT Give the Right Answer? 17.5.2 Leakage and Data Windowing 17.5.3 Data Windowing 17.5.4 Interpolation of Spectra 17.6 Power Spectrum Estimation 17.6.1 DFT Power Spectrum Estimation: Periodograms 17.6.2 Maximum Entropy (All Poles) Method 17.7 Digital Filtering 17.7.1 Circular Convolution 17.7.2 Windowed Filter Design 17.7.3 Z Transforms 17.7.4 Filtering in the Frequency Domain 17.7.5 Optimal Filter Design 17.8 Deconvolution 17.8.1 Inverse Filters 17.8.2 Wiener Filters 17.9 Resampling 17.9.1 Decimation 17.10 Fixing Space‐Variant Instrument Functions 17.11 Finite Precision Effects 17.11.1 Quantization 17.11.2 Roundoff 17.11.3 Overflow 17.12 Pulling Data Out of Noise 17.12.1 Shannon's Theorem 17.12.2 Model Dependence 17.12.3 Correlation Techniques 17.12.4 Numerical Experiments 17.12.5 Signal Averaging 17.12.6 Two‐Point Correlation 17.13 Phase Recovery Techniques 17.13.1 Unwrapping 17.13.2 Unwrapping in 2D 17.13.3 Phase Shifting Measurements 17.13.4 Fienup's Algorithm Chapter 18 Front Ends 18.1 Introduction 18.1.1 Noise Sources 18.1.2 Sanity Checking 18.2 Photodiode Front Ends 18.2.1 The Simplest Front End: A Resistor 18.2.2 Reducing the Load Resistance 18.3 Key Idea: Reduce the Swing Across Cd 18.4 Transimpedance Amplifiers 18.4.1 Frequency Compensation compensation 18.4.2 Noise in the Transimpedance Amp 18.4.3 Choosing the Right Op Amp 18.5 External Input Stages 18.5.1 FET Figures of Merit 18.5.2 No Such Amp Exists: Cascode Transimpedance Amplifiers 18.5.3 Noise in the Cascode 18.5.4 Externally Biased Cascode 18.5.5 Noise Considerations 18.5.6 Bootstrapping the Cascode 18.5.7 Circuit Considerations 18.5.8 One Small Problem … Obsolete Parts 18.5.9 Improved Bootstraps 18.5.10 Power Supply Noise 18.5.11 Capacitive Pickup 18.5.12 Beyond Transimpedance Amps: Cascode + Noninverting Buffer 18.5.13 Choosing Transistors 18.5.14 Nanoamps and Picoamps 18.6 How to Go Faster 18.6.1 Series Peaking 18.6.2 Broader Band Networks 18.6.3 Matching Networks and Bode's Theorem 18.6.4 T‐Coils 18.7 Advanced Photodiode Front Ends 18.7.1 Linear Combinations 18.7.2 Analog Dividers 18.7.3 Noise Cancellers 18.7.4 Using Noise Cancellers 18.7.5 Noise Canceller Performance 18.7.6 Multiplicative Noise Rejection 18.7.7 Applications 18.7.8 Limitations 18.8 Other Types of Front End 18.8.1 Low Level Photodiode Amplifiers 18.8.2 Pyroelectric Front Ends 18.8.3 IR Photodiode Front Ends 18.8.4 Transformer Coupling 18.9 Hints Chapter 19 Bringing Up the System 19.1 Introduction 19.1.1 The Particle Counter That Wouldn't 19.2 Avoiding Catastrophe 19.2.1 Incremental Development 19.2.2 Greedy Optimization 19.2.3 Specifying the Interfaces 19.2.4 Talking to Each Other 19.2.5 Rigorous Subsystem Tests 19.2.6 Plan the Integration Phase Early 19.2.7 Don't Ship It Till It's Ready 19.3 Debugging and Troubleshooting 19.4 Getting Ready 19.5 Indispensable Equipment 19.5.1 Oscilloscopes 19.5.2 Sampling Scopes 19.5.3 Spectrum Analyzers 19.5.4 Probes 19.6 Debugging Pickup and Interference Problems 19.6.1 Test Setups 19.7 Digital Troubleshooting 19.8 Analog Electronic Troubleshooting 19.9 Oscillations 19.9.1 My Op Amp Rings at 1 MHz When I Put This Cable on It 19.9.2 When I Wave at It, It Waves Back 19.9.3 My Circuit Works Until I Let Go of It 19.9.4 My Transistor Amplifier Oscillates at 100 MHz 19.9.5 Another Kind of Digital Troubleshooting 19.10 Other Common Problems 19.11 Debugging and Troubleshooting Optical Subsystems 19.12 Localizing the Problem 19.12.1 Is It Optical or Electronic? 19.12.2 Component Tests 19.12.3 Beam Quality Tests 19.12.4 Collimated Beam Problems 19.12.5 Focused Beam Problems 19.12.6 Viewing Techniques 19.12.7 Test Techniques for Imaging Systems 19.12.8 Test Techniques for Light Buckets 19.12.9 Invisible Light 19.12.10 Test Techniques for Fiber Systems 19.12.11 Test Techniques for Frequency‐Selective Systems 19.12.12 Source Noise Problems 19.12.13 Pointing Instability Problems 19.12.14 Source Pulling 19.12.15 Misalignment 19.12.16 Etalon Fringes 19.12.17 Thermal Drift 19.12.18 Environmental Stuff 19.12.19 Take It Apart and Put It Together Again Chapter 20 Thermal Control 20.1 Introduction 20.1.1 Temperature Control Regimes 20.2 Thermal Problems and Solutions 20.2.1 Thermal Expansion 20.2.2 Compliant Mounts 20.2.3 Athermalization 20.2.4 Thermal Gradients and Bending 20.2.5 Temperature and Young's Modulus 20.3 Heat Flow 20.3.1 Heat Conduction in Solids 20.3.2 “Thermal Mass” 20.3.3 3D Heat Conduction 20.3.4 Thermal Properties of Materials 20.3.5 Thermal Interfaces 20.3.6 Interfacial Thermal Resistance 20.3.7 Dry vs. Greased Interfaces 20.3.8 Greased Joint Problems 20.3.9 Thermal Gap Pads 20.3.10 Heat Conduction in Gases 20.3.11 Convection 20.3.12 Radiative Transfer 20.3.13 Getting Uniform Air Temperature 20.4 Insulation 20.4.1 Insulation and Thermal Radiation 20.4.2 Styrofoam 20.4.3 Dewars 20.4.4 Condensation 20.5 Temperature Sensors 20.5.1 IC Sensors 20.5.2 Thermistors 20.5.3 Platinum RTDs 20.5.4 Thermocouples 20.5.5 Diodes 20.5.6 Phase Change Sensors 20.5.7 Preventing Disasters: Thermal Cutouts 20.6 Temperature Actuators: Heaters and Coolers 20.6.1 Electric Heaters 20.6.2 PTC Thermistors 20.6.3 Thermoelectric Coolers 20.6.4 TECs, Thermal Loads, and Heat Leaks 20.6.5 Heat Sinking TECs 20.6.6 Mounting TECs 20.6.7 Stacking TECs 20.6.8 Connecting to TEC Stages 20.6.9 Modeling TECs 20.7 Heat Sinks 20.7.1 Natural Convection 20.7.2 Forced Air 20.7.3 Water Cooling 20.7.4 Phase Change Cells 20.7.5 Attaching Devices 20.7.6 The TEC Control Problem 20.7.7 Controlling TECs 20.7.8 Mechanical Refrigerators 20.7.9 Expendable Coolant Systems 20.8 Temperature Controller Design 20.8.1 High‐Precision Control 20.8.2 How Fast Can We Go? 20.8.3 Local Feedback Loops 20.8.4 Handling Gradients 20.8.5 Is the Sensor Temperature What You Care About? 20.8.6 Dissipation on the Cold Plate 20.9 Temperature Controllers 20.9.1 Bang–Bang Controllers: Thermostats 20.9.2 Linear Control 20.9.2.1 Proportional Loops 20.9.2.2 Integrating Loops 20.9.2.3 Derivative Terms 20.9.3 Frequency Compensation 20.9.4 Frequency Compensating Slow Loops: Integrator with Time Delay 20.9.5 Testing and Optimization of Temperature Controllers 20.9.6 Thermal Simulations: A Hack Appendix A Good Books A.1 Why Books? A.2 Good Books for Instrument Builders Mathematics Mathematical Tables Electromagnetics Optics Other Physics Circuits Noise and Interference Optomechanics Detection and Front Ends Measurements and Systems Construction Lasers Digital Signal Processing and Numerical Analysis Handbooks Worth Having Notation Physical Constants and Rules of Thumb Index EULA
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